Masters Degrees (Exercise, Sport and Lifestyle Medicine)

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Acute kinetic and kinematic differences between minimalist sandal, shod and barefoot running in habitually shod male recreational trail runners
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2021-03) Swart, Matthew; De Waal, Simon Jake; Venter, Ranel; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences. Dept. of Sport Science.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Please refer to full text for abstract.
Analysis of South African rugby coaches' engagement with performance analysis
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2015-12) Magwa, Zukhanye; Terblanche, E.; Kraak, Wilbur; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Education. Dept. of Sport Science.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The analysis of sport performance has been noted as one of the key building blocks within the coaching process, whereby coaches evaluate a player’s performance, identify weak points and provide adequate feedback to correct or improve future performances (Groom et al., 2011). The introduction of performance analysis (PA) has allowed coaches to have a wider range of tools available to provide feedback. In sports such as rugby, analysis has been a key tool in monitoring the demands of a match as well as playing a part in a players’ decision making during a game (James, 2009). Traditionally, the assessment of performance was linked to a coach’s observational capacity which could be influenced by their subjective views. Furthermore, research has shown that coaches were able to remember less than 50% of key events during one half of a soccer match. Thus indicating that coaches’ capacity to observe, recall, feedback and provide an accurate analysis of key events during a performance could be limited. The primary aim of the study was to use an online survey to evaluate how performance analysis is used by rugby coaches at a sub-elite level in South Africa. The main objectives included determining how PA contributes to the coaching practice and its use amongst different levels of rugby (provincial, university, school) in South Africa. In addition, the secondary aims were to assess the extent to which PA information was integrated into coaching practice, how coaches valued the use of PA and the role of the performance analyst in the coaching process. The study followed a descriptive design where data collection was conducted using an electronic questionnaire consisting of both open-ended and closed-ended questions. A total of 46 South African rugby coaches from provincial (n = 15), university (n = 15) and school (n = 16) volunteered to take part in the study. The key themes that were investigated included: demographic information of the coach, the analysis process, feedback to the players, the implications for coaching practice, how he interacts with the players, factors that influence the coach’s selection of specific key performance indicators and the coach’s assessment of the value of PA. The coaches were provided with a glossary of terms used in PA to assist them with completing the survey. Most of the coaches (67.4%) had access to video footage after every match, while 21.7% of the coaches rarely had access to video footage. Provincial coaches (93.0%) had most readily access to video footage compared to other coaching levels (p = 0.004). The majority of coaches (80.4%) received video footage within two days after a match. Provincial coaches had the fastest delivery time, with most of these coaches receiving video footage within a day (87%). Most of the coaches carried out PA themselves (67.4%). The majority of coaches (60.9%) identified PA to inform their coaching practice all the time. This was the same at each respective level with more provincial coaches using PA to inform their coaching compared to other coaching levels (86.0% at provincial, 40.0% at university and 56.0% at school). Most of the coaches (84.8%) in the study acknowledged that the use of PA to introduce changes to their game tactics was essential and very important. Most of the coaches (63.0%) also highlighted that their coaching philosophy was the main influence on their selection of KPIs with the selection of KPIs changing from game to game, apart from most provincial coaches who’s KPIs remained consistent from game to game (47.0%). There were 47.8% of the coaches who found the service provided by the individual who conducts PA as essential, while 34.8% valued it as important. It was concluded that most coaches involved in high level coaching in South Africa valued the use of PA and used it consistently to inform their coaching practice. The coaches involved at the highest level of coaching in the study, namely provincial coaches, have the most access to PA and used it more consistently to guide their coaching practice. The findings of this study have provided insight to how and why South African rugby coaches engage with performance analysis. In particular, these findings inform specifically on how performance analysis currently impacts their coaching practice.
An analysis of the skills and tactics of wheelchair rugby
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2007-03) Adams, Warren Grant; Bressan, E. S.; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Education. Dept. of Sport Science.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study was to determine what skills and tactics distinguish local level competition from top level competition in wheelchair rugby, through the use of games analysis. Eighteen games were filmed and analysed at three different levels of competition (local club level, regional level and international level). A five-level category set was developed to generate statistics related to successful and unsuccessful performance .. Results revealed that games play at local club and regional level in South Africa were dominated by turnovers and poor ball handling skills. Wheelchair mobility also was a factor in unsuccessful play. Basic tactical play, especially on defense, was also a major cause for concern at these levels. The difference between the South African national team and three other top international teams was not the distribution of reasons for success, but rather the frequency of success rate. South Africa was successful only 45% of the time in their performance of skills while international teams were successful 77% of the time. lt was evident in this study that the standard of play in the local club and regional level in South Africa reflects on their international performance. Ball possession is frequently lost to poor passing and poor wheelchair mobility. Turnovers are more often the result of poor passing by the opponents, rather than good defense. Successful goal inbounds and side inbounds plays are too often the result of poor defense rather than good offensive play. This study demonstrates that games analysis can be a helpful tool in determining the reasons for success and lack of success during wheelchair rugby.
Analyzing gait parameters in trail runners using wireless trunk accelerometry during real-world and treadmill incline running
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2020-12) Bergh, Oloff Charles Wessel; Venter, Ranel; De Waal, Simon Jake; Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences. Dept. of Sport Science.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Few studies have explored dynamic stability when running over complex or challenging surfaces, and no studies have investigated how trail terrain could affect components of dynamic stability. The aim of this study was to measure the acute changes in dynamic stability when running at incline, between treadmill and trail surfaces. Twelve recreational trail runners (age 25.2 ±2.6 years; mass 78.8 ±5.9 kg; height 183.6 ±7.1 cm) participated and completed all aspects of testing. They ran at 10 km.h-1with an eight-degree incline, over both treadmill and trail surfaces. Each participant had a single Noraxon®myoMotion Research PRO inertial measurement unit (IMU) attached to their third lumbar vertebrae region, capable of collecting wireless acceleration data. Linear acceleration data was captured up to 200 Hz and ± 16 g at the trunk region in three-dimensions, namely the vertical (VT), anterior-posterior (AP) and mediolateral (ML). Data was streamed to the Noraxon®myo RESEARCH software. Thereafter, the data was filtered using a zero-lag 4thorder low-pass Butterworth filter with a cut-off frequency of 50 Hz. Filtered acceleration data was imported into MATLAB R2020a (Version 9.6), with a custom written code performing an autocorrelation procedure of each participant over both treadmill and trail surfaces. The autocorrelations provided information regarding the step and stride regularity, as well as the symmetry of the individual over the two terrains, based on the three-dimensional accelerations at the trunk. Furthermore, mean step and stride times, as well as their coefficients of variations (CV) were calculated from the filtered data. Results were reported in the article (Chapter Four) and indicated that step and stride regularity was decreased (p< 0.01) in all three-dimensions when running over the more complex trail surface, compared to the steady treadmill surface. The AP and ML directions indicated a greater degree of diminution compared to the VT and is evident in the symmetry values. Symmetry decreased over the trail surface for both the AP (z= -3.06, p< 0.01) and ML (p< 0.01) directions, but not in the VT (z= -1.65, p= 0.10) direction. Additionally, there was no change in mean step (p= 0.45) and stride (p= 0.33) times, but a significant increase was observed for both step CV (p< 0.01) and stride CV (p< 0.01) when running on the trail surface. The first null hypothesis was rejected, as the coefficients of variation for both step and stride times indicated a significant difference when comparing the treadmill and trail surfaces. The second null hypothesis was rejected, as the trail surface did indicate a general decrease in dynamic stability components compared to the treadmill. In conclusion the trail demonstrated a higher degree of step and stride variability, and low symmetry, primarily due to the inconsistent nature of the trail surface. Future studies could investigate the role of cognition during trail running, by examining the decision-making process while traversing complex terrain such as the trail environment. Furthermore, future studies in the field of sports biomechanics could aim to incorporate a greater degree of software technology, such as adopting a more algorithmic approach to analysing data.
Anterior cruciate ligament rupture, reconstruction, rehabilitation and recovery: The personal experiences of competitive athletes.
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2018-03) Borman, Anel; Grobbelaar, Heinrich; Derman, Wayne; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Education. Dept. of Sport Science.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Injury is an unavoidable part of sport with inevitable physical as well as psychological consequences. Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) injuries is one of the most prevalent injuries in sport and although considerable research has focussed on the physical recovery, the psychological effects have been neglected. Identifying the thoughts, feelings and behaviours associated with the ACL rupture, reconstruction, rehabilitation and return-to-sport could enhance our understanding of the psychological impact of the ACL recovery process. The aims of the study were to explore and analyse the personal experiences of athletes who sustained a unilateral ACL rupture and underwent ACL reconstruction (ACLR) surgery at six time intervals during the post-injury recovery period up to and including return-to-sport. Seven competitive male athletes took part in the study. Semi-structured interviews were conducted immediately post-injury, preoperative, postoperative (phases 1, 2 & 3), as well as upon return-to-sport. The interviews elicited information about the personal and situational factors that influenced each athlete’s response to an ACL injury and undergoing ACLR surgery; their cognitive appraisal of the injury and recovery process; their emotional response to the injury and recovery process, as well as their behavioural response to the injury and recovery process. A total of 42 interviews were transcribed and analysed through the use of thematic analysis (TA). Six superordinate themes emerged; 1) establishing identity (athletic and personal), 2) cognitive appraisal, 3) responses (emotional and behavioural), 4) coping strategies (approach- and avoidance orientated), 5) types of social support (emotional, informational and tangible) and 6) advice/recommendations from injured research participants. The latter was specific to the return-to-sport phase. Each superordinate theme emerged as a result of a range of themes, sub-themes and categories of codes captured immediately post-injury, preoperatively, postoperatively (phases 1, 2 and 3) and upon return-to-sport. Direct quotes from participant transcripts were included to give meaning to each superordinate theme. All participants recovered physically from their injury and returned to sport within 12 months post-injury. This study reported thoughts, feelings and behaviours associated with athletes’ experiences of the rupture, ACLR surgery, rehabilitation and recovery process, as well as prior to and following return-to-sport. To the best of my knowledge, this is the first study of its kind conducted within a South African context and one of only a few studies to note the role of a biokineticist as a source of social support. This study provides guidelines and recommendations for medical professionals involved in the ACL rehabilitation process. Those involved in the rehabilitation process should be aware of the cognitions, emotions and behaviours associated with the rupture, reconstruction, rehabilitation and return-to-sport on the timeline to recovery. Focusing on athletes’ experiences of the five R’s associated with the ACL injury recovery process (i.e., Rupture, Reconstruction, Rehabilitation, Return-to-sport and Recovery) might help medical professionals, coaches, teammates, friends and family to have a better understanding of the injured athletes’ needs. Future research should aim to follow participants for up to two years post-surgery as it could take much longer for athletes to recover psychologically.
Anthropometric profile, physical fitness and cognitive functioning of elite Zimbabwean football referees
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2015-12) Banda, Morris; Grobbelaar, H. W.; Terblanche, E.; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Education. Dept. of Sport Science.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The aim of the study was to determine the anthropometric profile, body composition, physical fitness and executive cognitive functioning (ECF) of elite male Zimbabwean football referees. A total of 41 male referees took part in the study (M age = 34.89, SD = 0.13 years). Their mean body mass was 70.52 ± 10.50kg, height: 175.72 ± 6.86cm, body mass index: 20.79 ± 2.79kg/m2, waist-hip ratio: 0.83 ± 0.04, sum of six skinfolds: 65.77 ± 24.75mm, and body fat percentage: 11.97 ± 2.60%. A significant difference (p = .04) was found between the 21 referees (177.85 ± 7.32cm) and 20 assistant referees (173.50 ± 5.69cm), with the referees being taller. Their somatotype was 2.68-4.62-2.65 classifying them as balanced mesomorphs. Their physical fitness results were as follows: modified sit and reach (28.31 ± 6.42cm), vertical jump (38.63 ± 5.63cm), one minute sit up (37.56 ± 9.46), and one minute push up (26.13 ± 6.89). Referees on the Fe´de´ration Internationale de Football Association (FIFA, n = 8) accreditation list performed significantly (p = .04) more sit ups in one minute than those on the Zimbabwe Football Association (ZIFA, n = 33) list (36.09 ± 9.26). They recorded a best time of 5.45 ± 0.22s and a mean time of 5.62 ± 0.19s in the 6 x 40 m repeated sprint ability (RSA) test, with the FIFA referees (5.34 ± 0.25s) performing significantly better (p = .03) than the ZIFA referees (5.52 ± 0.20s). The participants (n = 38) completed the Modified Stroop task before and after a maximal effort on the change of direction ability (CODA) and Yo Yo intermittent recovery (YYIR) level one test to determine their ECF and the effect of strenuous physical activity on their ECF. Mean time to complete the CODA test was 9.60 ± 0.42s. They covered a distance of 950 ± 279m during the YYIR test, yielding a VO2max of 44.38 ± 2.35ml/min/kg-1, reaching a maximum heart rate of 189.66 ± 8.61 beats per minute or 101.26 ± 4.04% of their age predicted HRmax. Their ECF improved from pre to post-test as follows: C1 (12.73 ± 13.51%, p = .01) C2 (5.48 ± 8.20%, p = .01), C3 (9.15 ± 15.20%, p = .04), and C4 (8.42 ± 18.01%, p = .06). Significant negative correlations of moderate strength were found between the standardised physical performance score and the Modified Stroop test results for C1 pre-test (r = -0.40, p = .01), C3 pre-test (r = -0.34, p = .04), as well as for all four of the conditions at post-testing (C1: r = -0.35, p = .03; C2: r = -0.36, p = .03; C3: r = -0.32, p = .05; C4: r = -0.35, p = .03). These results indicate a significant relationship between physical fitness and ECF. This study lays the foundation for the development of scientific training programmes for elite Zimbabwean referees, as it highlighted strengths and weaknesses. The effectiveness of such programmes is subject to further investigation.
The application of sport psychology principles in the work place
(Stellenbosch : University of Stellenbosch, 2007-03) Bruintjies, Dianthea; Potgieter, Justus R.; University of Stellenbosch. Faculty of Education. Dept. of Sport Science.
Sport analogies are constantly used in business settings, perhaps due to some of the surface similarities between sport teams that strive to win competitive leagues and business teams striving to be successful in a competitive environment. The similarities between the sports and business worlds are highlighted by various authors who share “winning strategies” with managers and team leaders. However, the psychology of sports performance may be very different from the psychology of the business world. The main purpose of this investigation was to determine if the principles of sport psychology are indeed applicable to the environment of the workplace. Due to the emphasis on performance output in the corporate environment, which to a large extent is similar to the challenges encountered by elite sport persons, it is proposed that sport psychology rather than clinical psychology could be utilised as a way to assist employees to cope with the demands of the workplace. It is believed that by adopting the principles of sport psychology, employees can learn how to use mental skills, not only to enhance their performance in the work place, but also to deal with daily life stressors. The main focus of the study was to develop a mental skills programme based on sport psychology principles and to determine its effectiveness in the corporate world.
The assessment of motor competence in rugby
(Stellenbosch : University of Stellenbosch, 2005-12) Van Dyk, A. P.; Bressan, E. S.; University of Stellenbosch. Faculty of Education. Dept. of Sport Science.
The purpose of this study was to develop a valid test battery that could measure movement competence in rugby at U/16 level. Movement competence was adopted as the focus in this research because rugby is a sport consisting of challenges in primarily open skill situations. Competence is a level of proficiency that is higher than that of a novice, but not as high as an expert. Competence in rugby would imply that a player is reasonably successful in meeting the challenges of the dynamic situations on the field. Following a review of some different approaches to defining the abilities that seem to contribute to competence, movement competence in rugby at U/16 level was defined in terms of physical abilities, motor abilities and rugby skills. A test battery was designed to measure these variables, and then the battery was administered to the U/16 regional level group (n = 21) and the U/16 average level group (n = 108) from the same region. Anthropometry was recognised as a source of critical information in talent identification and development programmes, but because it has been well studied by other investigators, it was not included. Test validity was examined by comparing the scores between the two groups (the assumption is that the regional group should score higher on each item) and by asking the coaches to rate the tests in terms of face validity. The regional group achieved significantly better results in terms of speed, aerobic fitness, flexibility and power, in comparison with the average group. This suggests that the provincial players are more physical fit than the average high school players at U/16 level. However, the results of the motor abilities and skill items did not show a significant difference between the two groups. Although the coaches rated the test battery highly, new test items for these variables need to be considered to the next cycle in the Test of Rugby Competence.
Attitudes, behaviours and learning resources of amateur rugby union coaches and players towards the ruck event during training and match play
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2024-03 ) Brooks, Michael; Kraak, Wilbur Julio; Parmar, Nimai; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences. Dept. of Exercise, Sport and Lifestyle Medication.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Rugby union, commonly known as rugby, is a dynamic and physically demanding team sport with a rich history and a global following. It boasts over 9.2 million players and captivates the hearts of more than 344 million avid fans worldwide. One of the key elements in rugby is the ruck event, a critical phase of play where players on their feet compete for the ball while it's on the ground. This involves players from both teams making contact over the ball, trying to gain possession. Success in managing the ruck can sway the outcome of a match, enabling teams to shift momentum and exert dominance over their opponents. Hence, the ruck event emerges as an area of utmost importance for players, coaches, and referees. In this context, the attitudes, behaviours, and learning resources of amateur rugby coaches and players concerning the ruck event become pivotal factors influencing the sport's development and success. Understanding how these individuals perceive and engage with the ruck holds interest for key rugby stakeholders and carries implications for the field of rugby coaching and player development. This study investigates the attitudes, behaviours, and learning resources of amateur rugby coaches and players in South Africa, with a specific focus on the ruck event. Recognising the pivotal role of rucks in rugby, a sport marked by its physicality and strategic complexity, the study offers crucial insights into coaching methodologies, player development, and injury prevention strategies. The first aim of the study was to adapt an existing questionnaire by Hendricks et al. (2012 & 2020) that focused on the tackle event to fit the focus of the current study. The second aim was to assess the validity and reliability of the adapted questionnaire measuring the attitudes, behaviours, and learning resources of amateur rugby coaches and players towards the ruck event. The third aim was to administer the adapted questionnaire that measured the attitudes, behaviours, and learning resources of South African amateur rugby coaches and players towards the ruck event in rugby. This thesis follows a research article format with the first research article addressing the first and second aim of the study. This part of the study was pivotal, focusing on the adaptation, validation, and reliability testing of the questionnaire. This process involved an extensive literature review, discussions with rugby experts, and a rigorous validation and reliability process, including an expert panel review and test-retest of the questionnaire for reliability purposes. The questionnaire's high Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC) scores, 0.88 for coaches and 0.71 for players, confirmed its reliability. Research article two addressed the third aim of the study, presenting key results and discussions. The study revealed that 75% of predominantly male coaches (99%) emphasized the importance of mastering proper ruck techniques, crucial both for winning possession (78% of coaches) and preventing injuries (81% of coaches). Coaches reported dedicating significant time to training ruck skills, with a focus on body positioning (53% of coaches) and decision-making (73% of coaches). A statistical significance in coaches’ role regarding the intensity of off-season training (p = 0.04), preference for live rucking in a 2 vs. 2 grid (p < 0.01), and a focus on footwork before the ruck (p = 0.02) was seen. Significant differences were also identified in the preferred learning choices of World Rugby Level 3 coaches compared to coaches with other qualifications (p = 0.04). World Rugby Level 3 coaches exhibited a preference for workshops, coaching clinics, interaction with other coaches, and individual demonstrations. In contrast, coaches with other qualifications (p = 0.02) leaned towards learning through media channels, including social media platforms. Coaches also placed strong emphasis on continuous learning and adapting coaching strategies, relying on one-on-one verbal instruction (83%) and digital media resources, such as the internet (74%), televised matches (69%), and sports shows (78%). Research article three addressed the third aim of the study, providing insights from players, with 78% identifying the ruck as a vital game component. Players emphasized mastering ruck techniques for a competitive edge (86% of players) and injury prevention (80% of players). A statistically significant finding found that the more experienced players exhibited a preference for 10 or more sessions (p = 0.04) in the off-season compared to the inexperienced players. Their preferred learning methods included one-on-one verbal instruction (88% of players) and self-reflection (90% of players), showing a strong inclination towards visual and experiential learning, like reviewing video footage of matches (91% of players) and participating in on-field demonstrations (98% of players). Another statistically significant finding was that the more experienced players exhibited a preference for full-contact practice matches (p = 0.05) for injury prevention and improving ruck performance to inexperienced players. The more experienced players also showed a preference for “Driving and not diving into the ruck” (p = 0.03) during training rucking technique compared to the inexperienced players. In conclusion, this study enriches rugby research, especially at the amateur level in South Africa, providing a comprehensive understanding of the dynamics of the ruck event, with significant implications for coaching practices and player development. It offers invaluable perspectives for enhancing coaching methods, player performance and safety, and fostering a deeper appreciation of rugby's complexities.
Die bewegingsopvoedkundige, H. Isabelle Nel : 'n histories-filosofiese studie
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 1997) Anthonissen, I. (Ilse); Steyn, J. C.; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Education. Department of Sport Science.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die bydrae van H. Isabelle Nel tot die vakterrein Menslike Bewegingskunde (MBK) aan die Universiteit van Stellenbosch (US) met spesifieke verwysing na haar akademiese bydrae en die bydrae wat sy as leier in die professie gelewer het (1950-1985), is ondersoek. Die studie is vanuit 'n histories-filosofiese perspektief benader om die wetenskapsonderbou, soos sy dit gesien het, te dokumenteer. Inligting is ingesamel deur van primere en sekondere geskrewe bronne (verslae, notules, artikels, korrespondensie) gebruik te maak, aangevul deur onderhoude en oop-gestruktureerde vraelyste. Die inligting is hermeneuties gemterpreteer. Nel se biografiese besonderhede is verskaf. Perspektiewe oor vakontwikkeling is vanuit haar denkontwikkeling gedoen. Beleidsaspekte wat sy aangespreek bet, is die aard en die omvang van die studieterrein, konsepvorming onderliggend aan die vakbenaming en die implikasies vir tersiere opleiding. Nel begrond die sinergie van praktyk en teorie in haar konsep van bewegingsopvoeding. In haar doktorale studie, vorm kinesiologie die uitgangspunt wat die verband tussen liggaamlike opvoedkunde en ergonomie aantoon. Met haar benadering tot die bewegingsarea, opvoedkundige dans, het sy hierdie teoretiese aspekte toegepas en pionierswerk gedoen in die totstandkoming van 'n unieke benadering, gebaseer op 'n teoreties-gefundeerde rasionaal. In 197 5 is rekreasie op haar inisiatief as 'n praktiese kursus ingestel. Behoeftes van die gemeenskap en die gebrek aan nie-kompeterende sportsoorte, is hierdeur aangespreek. Nel se denkontwikkeling is weerspieel in die kursus-ontwikkeling wat by die US tot stand gekom het. Die teoretiese onderbou vir skool liggaamlike opvoeding is verryk met haar navorsing oor neuromuskulereontwikkeling, wat die grondslag van die nasionale kemsillabus (1972) vir liggaamlike opvoeding vir meisies gevorm het. Sy is mede-outeur van enkele publikasies en skryf verskeie artikels. Met die fokus op beplanning, reflekteer sy die geheelbeeld van die studieterrein in haar teoretiese raamwerk vir kurrikulering. Nel was instrumenteel in die vestiging van erkenning vir die professie. Haar rol in die stigting (1952) van die Vroue-Afdeling van die Suid-Afrikaanse Vereniging vir Sport, Liggaamlike Opvoedkunde en Rekreasie (SA VSLOR) is gedokumenteer. Sy is vereer met meriete toekennings van die Vereniging (1986, 1988) en die Staatspresident (1981) vir uitmuntende dliens gelewer en haar vir rol in die erkenning van die vrou en meisie in die professie. As Vise-President (vanaf 1965) van die Jnternatonal Association of Sport and Physical Education for Girls and Women (IAPESGW), versterk sy binne- en buitelandse kontak. Haar toewyding is bekroon met die toekenning van die 8ste IAPESGW-kongres in Kaapstad (1977), en by die 1997-kongres in Finland word sy vereer met die toekenning van erelidmaatskap. Haar volgehoue lidmaatskap van ICHPER (International Council of Health, Physical Education and Recreation) en ICSSPE (International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education), ten spyte van politieke druk, verseker dat buitelandse kundigheid in Suid-Afrika beskikbaar gestel kon word. H. Isabelle Nel het as bewegingsopvoedkundige op akademiese en professionele gebied met begaafde visie "Die oop gesprek" binne die studieterrein van Menslike Bewegingskunde en die onderafdelings verseker.
Body composition and functional fitness capacity of young academy soccer players in South Africa and Zimbabwe
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2013-12) Masocha, Vincent; Terblanche, Elmarie; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Education. Dept. of Sport Science.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Talent identification and early selection into a professional soccer academy has been reported to be very important for the long term development of footballing expertise (Le Gall et al., 2010). This awareness of the need for early identification of gifted youngsters has led to an increased number of soccer centres of excellence and academies throughout the world. Traditionally, identification and selection of promising individuals into youth soccer academies has been linked to a coach’s subjectivity and preconceived image of the player. Once this method is used in isolation it can result in tedious misjudgements in talent identification - hence the emphasis on science-based approaches. Through soccer-specific research, a number of anthropometric and physical parameters have been linked to successful performance in soccer. The primary aims of the study were to explore the anthropometric, somatotype and functional fitness characteristics of young academy soccer in South Africa and Zimbabwe and to distinguish variables that can be relevant for Talent Identification. The study followed a quantitative non-intervention design with a sample of convenience. A total of 74 young soccer players (Age 15.9±0.81) from South African (n = 41) and Zimbabwean (n = 33) soccer academies were purposively sampled. The following anthropometric variables were measured following the International Society of the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK) protocol: body mass and height; skinfolds – (triceps, subscapular, biceps, iliac crest, supraspinale, abdominal, front thigh, medial calf); Girths – (arm relaxed, arm flexed and tensed, waist, gluteal, and calf); bone breadths – (biepicondylar humerus and biepicondylar femur). Functional fitness variables that were measured include: lower back muscle flexibility (sit and reach test), upper body flexibility (shoulder flexibility), leg power using (vertical and horizontal jumps), overhead throw (2kg medicine ball throw), speed tests (10, 20, and 40m sprint tests), agility (Illinois test) and aerobic fitness (Hoff test). There were no statistically significant differences in age, body mass, height, fat mass, body mass index, lower back flexibility, right shoulder flexibility, 20m sprint, and endurance capacity (p>0.05). Statistically significant differences were found in percentage body fat (p>0.05), sum of 8 skinfolds, fat free mass, somatotype, left shoulder flexibility, upper and lower body power, 10m and 40m sprints (p<0.01). South African players were found to have higher %BF and sum of skinfolds and then Zimbabwean players. It was concluded that Zimbabwean players performed significantly better than South Africans in agility, 10m, 40m sprints, vertical jump, horizontal jump and overhead throw and had better future chances of success in soccer. Goalkeepers were taller and heavier, while midfielders and defenders were found to be lighter and shorter. Goalkeepers were the most agile group, while forwards were the fastest group. Agility, power and speed were the most important variables that can be used during talent selection and coaches should purposefully work to develop these characteristic during training sessions. Height and weight are relevant in allocating positional roles to players and not in Talent Identification.
The change in postural control in highly trained trail runners following a short, competitive, off-road time trial
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2023-03 ) Price, Nicholas; De Waal, Simon; Arnold, Sarah; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences. Dept. of Exercise, Sport and Lifestyle Medication.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Research on acute effects of trail running (TR) induced fatigue and postural control (PC) in highly trained trail runners is scarce. Therefore, the aim of this study was to measure the change in select postural control variables following a short, real-world, trail run time trail (26km; +900m) in a sample of highly trained trail runners. Thirteen (N=13) male, highly trained trail runners (age: 30.00  5.58 years old; weekly running: 65.00  6.45 kilometres) participated in this study. Participants completed five postural control system (PCS) tests before and after a short, real-world, TR time trial (26km +900m ascent). Balance tests included a Modified Clinical Test of Sensory Interaction of Balance (MCTSIB), Single Leg Modified Clinical Test of Sensory Interaction of Balance (SLMCTSIB) and a Star Excursion Balance Test (SEBT). Postural sway and sway frequencies were measured via a Gyko Inertial Measurement Unit (Microgate, Italy) during four different stance conditions; firm surface with eyes open (FO), firm surface with eyes closed (FC), compliant surface with eyes open (CO), and compliant surface with eyes closed (CC). Jump tests included a Countermovement Jump Test (CMJ) and Single-Leg Countermovement Jump test (SLCMJ). Jump height and flight time were measured using OptoJump (Microgate, Italy) and two Logitech web cameras (30 fps). Tests for normality were performed using the Shapiro-Wilk test. A combination of paired samples t-tests and Wilcoxon signed-rank tests were used to identify differences in mean scoresbefore and after the time trial (significance flagged as p<0.05). Statistically significant increases (p<0.05) in mediolateral sway were observed in stance conditions FO, FC and CC while anteroposterior sway showed significant increases (p<0.05) for stance conditions FO, and CO during the MCTSIB. A statistically significant increase (p<0.05) in mediolateral sway was observed in the SLMCTSIB for the FO stance condition. A significant decrease in reach length was observed during the SEBT in the anterior movement only (p<0.05) and only on the right foot. No statistically significant changes (p>0.05) were observed for maximal and mean jump height and time for CMJ. However, statistically significant decrements (p<0.05) were found for all variables during the SLCMJ test. This study's key finding was that significant changes in select PC variables were observed following a short TR time trial. In conclusion, it appears general TR-induced fatigue negatively impacts PC regulation following a 26km (+900m) trail run time trial. However, a combination of training status, task experience and compensatory strategies appear to limit the magnitude that general neuromuscular fatigue can have on PC regulation. A greater contribution from cognitive resources such as increased awareness and attentional demand could improve sensory detection capabilities needed to identify optimal balance demands via proprioceptive sensory sources. Future studies should measure trail runners of varying training statuses to better understand this phenomenon.
Changes in cognitive function and cerebral oxygenation patterns in rugby and non-contact sportspersons over a 15-week season
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2018-03) Clark, Anthony; Terblanche, Elmarie; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Education. Dept. of Sport Science.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Rugby is a contact team sport and is one of the most popular sports in South Africa and internationally. Recently, a growing body of research has highlighted that repeated concussive and subconcussive head contacts suffered during contact sport participation may have implications on athletes’ health later in life. Of particular concern is the notion that the accumulation of these blows to the head may spark progressive neurodegeneration in the form of diseases such as chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). Despite these concerns, the focus of research in rugby appears to be on the diagnosis and acute treatment of concussive injury, with little thought given to the long-term consequences. The purpose of this study was to broaden our understanding of the effect of short-term exposure to physical contact on the brains of rugby players who participate in high-level contact sport competition. The primary aim of the study was to determine whether a fifteen-week season elicit a change in the cognitive function and cerebral oxygenation of rugby players when compared with age and sex matched non-contact athletes. The secondary aim was to determine whether changes in sleep quantity and quality, as well as mood states, took place that have the potential to impact the cognitive function and cerebral oxygenation of the participants. Twenty-nine university athletes (16 rugby players (21,3 ± 1,35 yrs) and 13 non-contact sport athletes (20,8 ± 1,97 yrs)) were assessed before and after the 2017 Varsity Cup rugby competition (± 15 weeks). Each participant completed the CNS Vital Signs® Core testing battery, with measurements of cerebral oxyhaemoglobin (Δ[O2Hb]), deoxyhaemoglobin (Δ[HHb]), tissue oxygenation index (TOI) and normalised total haemoglobin index (nTHI) conducted simultaneously throughout testing. The cognitive testing battery consisted of seven tests that assessed eleven cognitive domains, giving an overall estimate of cognitive function. Additionally, participants’ mood states and sleep status (quality and quantity) were measured prior to cognitive and cerebral oxygenation analysis each session. Overall, cognitive function did not change for either group over the 15-week season (ES = 0,11 and 0,06 for Rugby and Control, respectively). Cerebral oxygenation measurements did not reflect any unexpected changes within the Control group, however, relative Δ[HHb] (ES = 0,57) and nTHI (P = 0,01; ES = 1,29) were significantly increased at post-testing in the rugby players. These variables are considered indirect indicators of oxygen consumption and cerebral blood flow rate, respectively. Thus, while the rugby players’ cognitive performance was maintained, alterations to cerebral oxygenation data took place that may be the result of participation in their sport. These findings may suggest that subtle impairments are beginning to take place within the brains of the players. Therefore, although a 15-week season may not have been enough to induce obvious negative changes in rugby players’ cognitive function, exposure to contact over the course of multiple seasons may cause neural impairments to the extent that cognitive function, and health, are affected later in life. Despite these notions, it is recognised that changes in mood state and sleep pattern of the players may have confounded the results. Thus, additional research is required to further build on the sentiments proposed in this study.
Changes in energy metabolism and intermittent sprint performance in healthy active individuals following a 6-week low carbohydrate eating plan
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2020-12) Pretorius, Johanna Mercia; Terblanche, Elmarie; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences. Dept. of Sport Science.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Most field-and court sports are characterized by intermittent sprint movement patterns. With intermittent sprints, it is well-established that the anaerobic glycolytic pathway is downregulated during later sprints, to diminish metabolic by-product induced muscle fatigue. This study is, to my knowledge, the first to investigate the merits of a low-carbohydrate (LC) diet as a nutritional approach for intermittent sprints. It was hypothesised that carbohydrate (CHO) restriction will stimulate upregulation in the two main energy systems; ATP-PCr and aerobic metabolism. Measures of the metabolic energy systems and power output during intermittent sprints (6 x 10 s cycle sprints; 2 min recovery) was performed in 15 recreationally active participants (7 men, 8 women), on their baseline habitual diet (HD: 35% CHO, 45% fat, 20% protein) and 2-weekly throughout a 6-week LC intervention (7% CHO, 66% fat, 28% protein). Pre-and post-intervention, maximal aerobic capacity tests were performed and weekly blood [ketone] and wellness scores obtained. A linear increase in absolute ATP-PCr energy contribution occurred every 2 weeks to achieve a statistically significant change at LC week-6 (+22.0 ±43.15 Joule; p=0.019; ES = 0.47). Expressed as a percentage of total energy output, a large (2.1±2.61%) increase in ATP-PCr contribution from baseline to LC week 2 was evident (p = 0.072: ES = 0.81), with very large significant changes at LC week 4 (2.5 ±2.29%; p = 0.011; ES = 1.10) and 6 (3.5 ±2.36%; p = 0.002; ES = 1.50). A significant moderate decrease in absolute anaerobic glycolytic contribution occurred at LC week 2 (-14.4 ±28.16 Joules; p = 0.031; ES = -0.10) and remained low throughout the LC intervention. This change reflected a very large significant (-3.0 ±2.91%)decline in percentage contribution by LC week 6 (p = 0.028: ES = -1.04). No significant change was, however, evident in absolute aerobic energy contribution (p=0.85). These energy system adaptations resulted in moderately lower onset of fatigue by LC week-6 after a super compensation-curved adaptation (7.4 ±3.92% vs. 5.7 ±2.64; p = 0.332; ES = -0.50). Peak power output during a graded exercise test was unchanged over the LC intervention (271.6 ± 60.19 W vs. 272.7 ± 54.48 W; p = 0.772; ES = 0.02), accompanied by a significant (5.3 ± 5.66%) increase in relative VO2max (p = 0.005; ES = 0.32), a very large(-19.1 ± 18.34%) significant reduction in peak lactate (p = 0.005; ES = -1.00) and a significant (12.1 ± 12.77%) improvement in power at aerobic threshold (p = 0.002; ES = 0.43). Mean blood ketone levels of 0.8 ±0.47 mmol.L-1 for the LC 6-weeks, were significantly higher than at baseline (0.3 ±0.09 mmol.L-1; p=0.002), while a moderate improvement in wellness scores was evident during the LC phase (p=0.062; ES= 0.54). These outcomes suggest that the LC intervention stimulated significant and favourable adaptations in anaerobic energy metabolism, resulting in supercompensation-curved changes in intermittent sprint performance.
The characteristics and sanctioning of tackles during the 2011-2015 under 18 Craven Week rugby tournament
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2017-03) Boucher, Shannon John; Kraak, Wilbur; Brown, James; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Education. Dept. of Sport Science
ENGLISH ABSTRACT : Rugby is one of the most popular team sports in the world, however, the high injury rate associated with it is an area of concern for coaches, players, parents and referees. The tackle is the most common contact event in the game and because of this accounts for the most injuries during training and matches. Due to the nature of the game the tackle event will always be present. Sport participation among children and adolescents is increasing globally, due to the many health related-benefits attributable to engaging in sport including enjoyment, social interaction and health. Research into schoolboy rugby tackle characteristics is limited and even less is known regarding the sanctioning of illegal tackles by the referees during match-play, particularly in South Africa. The primary aim of the study was to determine the number of illegal tackles and if they were sanctioned or not sanctioned by the referee’s during the 2011- 2015 under 18 Craven Week tournaments. The secondary aim was to assess which factors were associated with sanctioning and non-sanctioning of illegal tackles. This thesis followed a research article format, with the specific aims being investigated in each article. Research article one assessed the legal and illegal tackles characteristics during the 2011-2015 under 18 Craven Week tournament. Research article two focused on the sanctioning and non-sanctioning of illegal rugby tackles during the 2011-2015 under 18 Craven Week tournament. Research article one revealed an average of 123 tackles per match. The tackles were spread evenly throughout the four quarters of the match. Most of the tackles occurred front-on (65%) which is consistent with other literature. Also in agreement with other literature was the finding that most tackle events involved one tackler (66%). The study revealed that 12103 (99%) tackles were deemed legal and only 113 (1%) tackles were found to be illegal, as judged by the coding of the match videos. Most of these occurred front-on (66%) and involved one tackler (91%). Most of the illegal tackles took place in quarter two (29%) and four (29%) of the match, which highlights the effect of fatigue, leading to poorer tackling technique and decision making by the tackler. The second research article revealed 113 illegal tackles, of which 46 tackles were sanctioned and 67 tackles were non-sanctioned by the referee. The high tackle (72%) being the most common type of illegal tackle. Most of the illegal tackles took place in quarter two (29%) and four (29%). Illegal tackles mainly took place front-on (66%) and involved one tackler (91%). Most illegal tackles (59%) were not sanctioned by the referees, especially in 2012 (84%). A high percentage of high tackles (65%) and dangerous charging tackles (67%) were not sanctioned by the referee. This is an area of concern for players, coaches and referees as illegal tackles have the highest propensity for injury in comparison to any other contact event. Full understanding of the characteristics surrounding the tackle and sanctioning of illegal tackles is the initial step in the injury prevention model. This information will guide the rugby education programmes into what law, technique and coaching changes need to be put in place in order to make rugby safer across all level of play. Strict enforcement of the laws by referees will help make the game safer for all involved.
Coaching and skill profiles of mini-rugby coaches and players in the Western Cape, South Africa
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2017-12) Basson, Jacques; Kraak, Wilbur; van Deventer, Karel; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Education. Dept. of Sport Science.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT : The optimal development of mini-rugby players demands a substantiated, ageappropriate training programme, as well as good quality coaching and a structured methodology. However, due to a lack of qualified, experienced rugby coaches in the Western Cape Province primary schools, South Africa, the coaching of mini-rugby is often lacking and neglected. The first objective of this study was to compile a profile of mini-rugby coaches in the Western Cape Province, South Africa with the aim of establishing the coaches’ experience in playing and coaching rugby, their coaching education and training, and their feelings of efficacy in terms of developing mini-rugby players. The second objective was to determine the effect of a skills intervention programme on the skill level of mini-rugby players with the purpose of investigating the impact of an organised and substantiated practice plan on the skill development of players. This thesis followed a research article format. Article one will address the first objective of the study. The first major finding of this study was that the majority of coaches (51%) did not have any form of rugby coaching qualification. When this number was combined with the number of coaches who only had a World Rugby level one qualification, which does not require any assessment, it showed that a disturbing 84% of the coaches either did not have any form of coaching training or were not assessed on their knowledge of, or their ability to coach rugby. Furthermore, a significant number of the coaches did not feel efficacious in their coaching (23%) and did not believe that they were optimally developing the skills of the players (29%). The findings highlight an unfavourable situation where untrained and inexperienced individuals coach mini-rugby, which has important practical implications for rugby administrators, developers of coaching education courses, players, as well as the game itself. Article two addressed the second objective of the study. The experimental group, when compared to the control group, showed significant improvements (p<0.05) in five of the six skills (e.g. passing, catching, picking up the ball, tackling and taking the ball into contact). Although the control group improved in three of the skills, the improvements were not significant (p>0.05). Considering the results, it can be concluded that the specific skills intervention programme significantly enhanced the skill level of the mini-rugby players. Furthermore, the study highlighted the importance of appropriate coach education and training, as well as the value of a well-structured and substantiated training programme in the quest for players’ skill development. By investigating the coaching and skill profiles of mini-rugby coaches and players respectively, coaches and other relevant role players will be able to make more informed decisions regarding the coaching of mini-rugby and the development of mini-rugby players. An obvious recommendation would be that all coaches must be educated and trained to coach rugby and that a coaching education course designed specifically for mini-rugby will aid in preparing individuals to successfully coach mini-rugby and raising their confidence to do so. Another recommendation would be that all practice plans need to be wellstructured to incorporate age-appropriate activities, suitable progressions, as well as the element of play and fun.
The comparative effect of paired versus a small group cross motor invention on the motor capabilities of selected children pre-identified with childhood apraxia of speech
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2018-11) Nolte, Heike; Africa, Eileen Katherine; Solomons, Regan; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences. Dept. of Sport Science.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Children with Childhood Apraxia of Speech (CAS) do not only have isolated speech and sound delays but teachers and parents often report motor co-ordination difficulties. The latter often leads to the child with CAS being clumsy. Although teachers and parents have reported motor co-ordination difficulties, research investigating the gross motor capabilities of children with CAS does not seem to exist. Not a single study could be found that investigated the effect of a gross motor intervention programme on children with CAS. The main aim of the current study was to investigate the effect of a paired versus a small group gross motor intervention programme on selected pre-school children, pre-identified with CAS. Purposive sampling was used and consisted of participants (N=20), ranging between the ages of three and seven years. All the participants were from a primary school in the Bellville area in the Western Cape Province, South Africa. The participants were randomly divided into paired groups and a small group by an external third party. Both the paired groups and the small group were evaluated at baseline-, pre- and post-test with the Movement Assessment Battery for Children 2nd Edition (MABC-2), and the Test of Gross Motor Development 2nd Edition (TGMD-2). The evaluations took two weeks to complete and were conducted in two 45 minute sessions per week. The 12-week intervention programme was also presented twice a week, with each session lasting 45 minutes. The researcher compared the results of the paired groups to the small group and concluded that the specific intervention programmes did not benefit either of the groups more than the other. Both the paired groups and the small group significantly improved their overall scores for the MABC-2 and the TGMD-2 after the 12-week intervention programme. Therefore, it could be speculated that the specific 12-week gross motor intervention programmes influenced the gross motor capabilities of the children pre-identified with CAS.
Comparing male and female 10km runners with regards to both performance and training
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2003-12) Bowen, Robyn; Myburgh, Kathryn H.; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Education. Dept. of Sport Science.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The objective of this study was to compare training and physiological variables in performance-matched 10 km female and male athletes in order to identify those factors allowing females to compensate for their lower haematocrit and higher % body fat, both of which are disadvantageous to performance. Eight well-trained competitive female runners and eight well-trained competitive male runners participated in the study. They were matched by performance in a controlled 10 km time trial in the field (TT10). Training was monitored in each athlete for seven consecutive days using heart rate monitoring and training diaries. Each athlete gave a muscle biopsy for histological and biochemical analysis. Four maximal tests, two flat and two gradient (8%), were completed by each athlete in order to determine V02max, maximum heart rate and peak treadmill speed (PTS) under each condition. Each athlete also completed two submaximal tests (one flat and one gradient) and a ten minute race pace test, in which the pace was determined by their TT10 performance. These allowed fractional utilization of V02max, HRmax and PTS to be determined, as well as economy. Training data revealed a much greater training volume, both distance run and duration of training, in female athletes (p < 0.05 for distance; p < 0.01 for duration). V02max expressed per kg body mass was significantly higher in males (p < 0.05), however, when expressed per FFM, no difference was found between genders. Female athletes had a significantly greater percent composition of type I fibres and males had significantly more type IIX fibres, possible explanation of gender difference in PTS and contributing factor to equal TT10. The relationships between training, performance and biochemical variables in either gender were very different.
Comparision of aquatic- and land-based plyometric training on power, speed and agility in adolescent rugby union players
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2011-12) Fabricius, David Leslie; Venter, Ranel; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Education. Dept. of Sport Science.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The purpose of the study was to compare the effectiveness of an aquatic- and landbased plyometric programme upon selected, sport-specific performance variables in adolescent male, rugby union players. A group of 52 rugby players (age: 16.3 ± 0.8 years, height: 176 ± 6.9 cm and body mass: 76.1 ± 11.9 kg) were randomly assigned to one of three groups: aquatic group (n=18), land group (n=17), and a control group (n=17). Prior to and after the sevenweeks of training, the power, agility and speed of participants were assessed by means of Fitrodyne repeated countermovement jumps, the Sergeant vertical jump, the Illinois agility test, a standing broad jump, and a 10- and 40- metre sprint. All three groups maintained their summer extra-curricular sport commitments during the intervention period. When the three groups were analysed, no significant differences were found between the groups with regard to all tested performance variables. With regard to withingroup changes, the aquatic group improved significantly (p<0.05) in the Illinois agility test, performed to the right. The land group showed significant (p<0.05) improvements in peak concentric power during Fitrodyne repeated countermovement jumps. All groups reflected highly significant (p<0.01) improvements in the Sergeant vertical jump. None of the groups displayed any improvements in sprint speed. The control was the only group to improve significantly in the standing broad jump (p<0.05). Land-based plyometric training might be a functionally superior training modality for athletes, although aquatic plyometrics could also offer an effective training modality for performance enhancement in power-based sports such as rugby union football. Aquatic-based plyometrics should not completely replace land-based plyometrics, as it might not adequately develop the specific neuromuscular patterns or functional needs of explosive sports.
Comparison between forward and backward gait retraining for mobility in individuals with mild to moderate Parkinson’s disease
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2017-03) Grobbelaar, Roné; Welman, Karen; Venter, Ranel; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Education. Dept. of Sport Science
ENGLISH ABSTRACT : Background Dysfunctional gait and transitional movements are the most disabling features of Parkinson's disease (PD) and often relates to falls. Due to executive dysfunction in PD, dual tasking (DT) is detrimental to already impaired mobility parameters. Backwards walking (BW) might be a useful training alternative to improve aberrant PD gait and transitional movements to consequently improve the quality of complex, multi-directional daily activities, which most often involve DT. Over ground BW gait retraining has shown to be beneficial for neurological gait rehabilitation; however, has not yet been investigated in PD. Training in complex, novel tasks may induce enhanced cortical activity for movement preparation that is beyond training in automatic tasks. Purpose This study aimed to compare the effect of an eight-week forward and backwards gait retraining program on gait parameters, postural transitions and turning in PD individuals as well as the related percentage DT interference (%DTC). Methods This randomized controlled trial was performed as a staggered design in the Western Cape. Twenty-nine PD individuals (34.5% women) with disease severity of 38.1±12.3 (Movement Disorder Society – Unified Parkinson‟s Disease Rating Scale; UPDRS III) were randomly assigned into a forward (FWG) or backward (BWG) walking group by means of concealed, simple randomization (1:1 ratio). The FWG included 14 participants (aged: 70±11 years; Hoehn and Yahr (H&Y): 2.7±0.5; disease duration: 7±6 years) and was compared to 15 participants of similar age (72±6 years), H&Y (2.7±0.9) and disease duration (5±3 years) in the BWG. Groups performed a 24-session (3x/week for eight weeks) over ground gait retraining program of the same tasks in opposite directions. Descriptive measures at baseline included body mass index, experiences of daily living (UPDRS II), global cognition (Montreal Cognitive Assessment), depression (Patient Health Questionnaire-9) and freezing status (Freezing of Gait Questionnaire). Participants completed an instrumented (APDM®) 10m-Walk (i10mWT), a Five-times-Sit-toStand (i5xSTS) and Timed-Up-and-Go (iTUG) test under both single task (ST) and DT (cognitive, arrhythmic) conditions before and after the intervention. Participants were blinded to the primary outcome measures, which were selected gait variables (i10mWT), sit-to-stand (i5xSTS) and stand-to-sit (iTUG) transitions as well as turning variables (iTUG), together with %DTC of each variable. Secondary outcome measures included functional capacity (FC, Six Minute-Walk test), balance confidence (Activity-specific Balance Confidence scale) and disease related quality of life (Parkinson‟s Disease Questionnaire-39; PDQ-39). Results Both groups improved ST walking velocity (FWG: p=0.04, d=0.35; BWG: p<0.01, d=0.57), ST turning velocity (FWG: p=0.04, d=0.28; BWG: p=0.05, d=0.28), FC (FWG: d=0.82; BWG: d=1.06; p<0.01) and MDS-UPDRS III scores (FWG: p=0.02, d=0.45; BWG: p=0.03, d=0.62). Additionally, the BWG improved individual PDQ-39 domains (p=0.01, d=0.41), i10mWTST time (p<0.01, d=0.45), gait cycle time (p=0.01, d=0.00), stride length (SL; p=0.02, d=0.39) and cadence (p<0.01, d=0.67); however worsened SL variability (p=0.04, d=0.83) under ST conditions. The BWG also improved %DTC for percentage double support (%DS) variability (p=0.05, d=0.57); however deteriorated %DTC for %DS (p=0.05, d=0.45) and swing time gait asymmetry (p=0.02, d=0.61). The FWG improved UPDRS II scores (p=0.03, d=0.44), i5xSTSST duration (p<0.01, d=0.52), iTUG duration (ST: p<0.01, d=0.71; DT: p=0.02, d=0.54), turning angle (ST: p=0.02, d=0.52; DT: p=0.01, d=0.62) and %DTC for SL (p=0.02, d=0.67). Conclusion Both FW and BW over ground gait retraining can be beneficial for PD mobility. Even though most outcomes are training direction specific, findings illustrates that the ability to learn remains intact in mild to moderate PD. Considering that both interventions yielded individual benefits, BW should not replace, but rather be added to a FW gait retraining program. Albeit FW can be a beneficial non-pharmacological method to improve mobility aspects, BW is an interesting alternative for rehabilitative purposes in mild to moderate PD.

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