Characterisation and detection of mefenoxam sensitivity in phytophthora nicotianae and phytophthora citrophthora from citrus in South Africa

Date
2024-03
Journal Title
Journal ISSN
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Publisher
Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University
Abstract
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In South Africa, citrus is of high agricultural and economic importance, representing one of the country's major fruit crops. This sector plays a pivotal role in the nation's economy by substantially contributing to export earnings and employment opportunities. Citrus production is, however, threatened by oomycete pathogens, particularly Phytophthora, that can cause citrus diseases resulting in significant economic losses. Phytophthora nicotianae and P. citrophthora have been reported in every citrus-producing province in South Africa including citrus nurseries. These soil-borne pathogens primarily target the roots and the lower parts of citrus trees, causing root rot, lesions, gummosis, and brown rot of citrus fruit. Infected trees experience a decline in vigour, leading to stunted growth, wilting, and death in severe cases. These diseases also compromise the tree's ability to translocate water and nutrients, resulting in reduced fruit production and poor fruit quality. Mefenoxam is routinely used in citrus nurseries and orchards to treat Phytophthora infections. This chemical inhibits RNA polymerase I, responsible for rRNA synthesis. Its action prevents mycelial growth, sporangia formation, and germ tube growth, but due to its site-specificity, there is a high risk of resistance development. Continuous use of mefenoxam by citrus growers has led to the detection of mefenoxam-resistant Phytophthora isolates globally, including in South African nurseries and orchards. The monitoring of resistance to mefenoxam is important to ensure the lasting efficacy of this highly effective chemical and is reliant on the rapid and accurate detection of mefenoxam sensitivity. In this study, mefenoxam-insensitive and -sensitive P. nicotianae and P. citrophthora isolates were identified by in vitro fungicide sensitivity testing using Ridomil Gold 480 SL. These isolates were subjected to whole genome sequencing (WGS) using an optimised DNA isolation protocol to obtain high-quality, intact DNA from Phytophthora mycelia. A complete genome assembly of P. citrophthora was generated, for the first time, using PacBio HiFi long-read sequencing and used as the reference genome for WGS obtained by Illumina sequencing. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were detected in ABC transporter and cytochrome P450 genes as well as in RNA polymerase III subunits for P. nicotianae isolates and in RNA polymerase II and III subunits for P. citrophthora isolates. A quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assay was developed to differentiate between mefenoxam-sensitive and homozygous-resistant P. citrophthora isolates. The specificity of this assay for P. citrophthora was validated against various other citrus soil-borne pathogens. The low number of insensitive isolates significantly limited the design of qPCR assays for P. nicotianae. Additionally, we evaluated a multiplex assay to detect P. citrophthora and assess mefenoxam sensitivity, simultaneously, although the amplification products could not be differentiated from each other, necessitating further optimisation. Overall, this study offers important genetic insights into mefenoxam sensitivity in Phytophthora, setting a foundation for the development of diagnostic tools to monitor fungicide resistance and manage citrus diseases caused by oomycetes more effectively.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In Suid-Afrika is sitrus een van die belangrikste vrugtegewasse en is daarom van hoë landbou- en ekonomiese belang. Hierdie sektor speel 'n kernrol in die ekonomie van die land deur aansienlik by te dra tot uitvoerinkomste en werksgeleenthede. Sitrusproduksie word egter bedreig deur oomysete patogene, veral Phytophthora, wat sitrusiektes kan veroorsaak en kan lei tot aansienlike ekonomiese verliese. Phytophthora nicotianae en P. citrophthora is reeds in elke sitrusproduserende provinsie in Suid-Afrika gerapporteer, asook in sitruskwekerye. Hierdie grondgedraagde patogene teiken hoofsaaklik die wortels en die onderste dele van sitrusbome, wat wortelverrotting, gomvloei en bruinverrotting van sitrusvrugte veroorsaak. Geïnfekteerde bome ondergaan 'n afname in groei, wat lei tot gebrekkige ontwikkeling, verwelking en selfs dood in ernstige gevalle. Hierdie siektes belemmer ook die boom se vermoë om water en voedingstowwe te translokeer, wat lei tot verminderde vrugproduksie en swak vrugte kwaliteit. Mefenoxam word gereeld in sitruskwekerye en boorde gebruik om Phytophthora infeksies te behandel. Hierdie swamdoder inhibeer RNA polimerase I, wat verantwoordelik is vir rRNA-sintese. Die swamdoder voorkom die groei van miselium, die vorming van sporangia en die groei van kiembuise, maar daar is 'n hoë risiko vir weerstandontwikkeling weens die enkel genetiese teiken. Die voortdurende gebruik van mefenoxam deur sitrusprodusente het gelei tot die opsporing van mefenoxam-weerstandige Phytophthora isolate wêreldwyd, asook in Suid-Afrikaanse kwekerye en boorde. Die monitering van weerstand teen mefenoxam is belangrik om die langdurige doeltreffendheid van hierdie hoogs effektiewe swamdoder te verseker en is afhanklik van die vinnige en akkurate opsporing van mefenoxam-sensitiwiteit. In hierdie studie is mefenoxam-onsensitiewe en -sensitiewe P. nicotianae- en P. citrophthora isolate geïdentifiseer deur in vitro swamdoder-sensitiwiteitstoetse met Ridomil Gold 480 SL uit te voer. Hierdie isolate is onderwerp aan hele genoomvolgordebepaling (HGV) met behulp van 'n geoptimeerde DNS-isolasieprotokol om hoë kwaliteit, intakte DNS van Phytophthora miselium te verkry. 'n Volledige genoomsamestelling van P. citrophthora is, vir die eerste keer, gegenereer deur gebruik te maak van PacBio HiFi lang-leesvolgordebepaling en is gebruik as die verwysingsgenoom vir HGV wat verkry is deur Illumina-volgordebepaling. Enkelnukleotiedpolimorfismes (ENP's) is opgespoor in “ABC-transporter” en “cytochrome P450” gene, asook in RNA polimerase III subeenhede vir P. nicotianae isolate en in RNA polimerase II en III subeenhede vir P. citrophthora isolate. 'n Kwantitatiewe polimerase kettingreaksie (kPKR) toets is ontwikkel om te onderskei tussen mefenoxam-sensitiewe en homosigote-weerstandige P. citrophthora isolate. Die spesifisiteit van hierdie toets vir P. citrophthora is bevestig teen verskeie ander sitrus grondgedraagde patogene. Die lae aantal onsensitiewe isolate het die ontwerp van kPKR-toetse vir P. nicotianae beperk. Daarbenewens het ons 'n multipleks-toets geëvalueer om P. citrophthora op te spoor en mefenoxam- sensitiwiteit gelyktydig te assesseer, alhoewel die amplifikasieprodukte nie van mekaar kon onderskei word nie, wat verdere optimisering noodsaaklik maak. Hierdie studie bied belangrike genetiese insigte in mefenoxam-sensitiwiteit in Phytophthora, wat as 'n grondslag dien vir die ontwikkeling van diagnostiese hulpmiddele om swamdoderweerstand te monitor en sitrusiektes veroorsaak deur oomycetes meer doeltreffend te bestuur.
Description
Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 2024.
Keywords
Phytophthora, citrus, mefenoxam
Citation