Department of Ancient Studies

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Aspects of the Sabbath in the late second Temple period
(Stellenbosch : University of Stellenbosch, 2006-03) Lizorkin, Ilya; Cook, Johann; University of Stellenbosch. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
This thesis is a study of five books (Jubilees, 1 and 2 Maccabees, the Damascus Document and Josephus Jewish Antiquities) that represent the literature dealing with the issue of the Sabbath in significant ways, written between 200 B.C.E. and 100 C.E. In this study the author is determined to find the most prominent ways in which various Jews of the period treated the Sabbath, considering both its theological significance and actual practical application. The author seeks to apply the literary-critical method to the study of these books by identifying how the Sabbath pericopes fit into the larger structure of each book and contribute to the overall argument of each work. After dealing with introductory issues, such as terms, methods, historical settings and methodology, the author then works through the major Sabbath-related pericopes in each book followed by a concluding summary for each book. Then author moves from detailed individual conclusions to general summaries, seeking to deduce the “big picture” of the Judaisms represented in the five works that he researched. Throughout the thesis the author is asking all of the texts the following questions: Was there a major Jewish view of the Sabbath or were the views varied within Judaisms? Was the Sabbath one of the most important issues facing the Jewish Community or was it rather a peripheral one? What was the place of Covenant with YHWH in the Sabbath thought of the day? What was the impact of the historical events of the period on the views of the Sabbath? Was the understanding(s) of the Sabbath legalistic or was there a depth of heartfelt spirituality accompanying Sabbath observance? Were the rules with regard to the Sabbath actually carried out or were they largely ignored? At the conclusion he attempts to answer these questions point by point based upon the data that he collected by studying the passages related to the Sabbath observance within the books mentioned above. This study is preliminary in nature, since it attempts to provide only some background information to the question: Did the Jewish Christians of the first century change the day of worship from Saturday to Sunday? If so, how did they do so while managing to avoid any kind of major debate over the change? This question the author plans to pursue in his forthcoming research.
Aspects of the translation technique of the Septuagint : the finite verb in the Septuagint of Deuteronomy
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 1992-12) Nieuwoudt, Bernard Andre; Cook, Johann; Claassen, Walter T.; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Arts & Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Two major religions, Judaism and Christianity, use the ancient Hebrew Bible as Holy Scripture. These books were translated in the last three centuries before the common era. The oldest of these translations is the Septuagint, a Greek translation. Not only are the Hebrew and Greek texts that were involved in the original translation process missing, but precious little is known about the doctrine and translation methods of the translators of the Septuagint. Much can be learned about these crucial issues, however, if the translation technique followed by those ancient translators is studied by comparing the present Hebrew and Greek texts. A new method to determine and describe the translation technique of the Septuagint was proposed and tested in this dissertation. This method is based on the use of the Computer Assisted Tools for Septuagint Studies (CATSS) data base and statistical methods. The translation technique of the book Deuteronomy was described using different criteria, all of which measure the frequency of non-literal renderings. Three different groups of criteria were utilized, viz. the Tov criteria as proposed by E. Tov, criteria defined using the markers in the CATSS data base called the CATSS criteria, and grammatical criteria using the person of the verb. Each criterion was applied to the data base individually. The translation units were determined first, after which the translation technique found within the translation unit was described. The methodology implemented discriminates between significant and insignificant trends in translation technique. It became clear that the results of the different criteria indicate different translation units and different translation techniques for each of the criteria. Except for some criteria using the person of the verb, very little indication was found that the traditional translation units are supported by the data used in this study. In fact, it seems as if translation units should be determined before the translation technique is described. The translation technique should then be described according to the indicated units. Not all the Tov criteria could be utilized, but their results are in agreement to some extent. The CATSS criteria proved to be more difficult to implement than expected, but some of the criteria rendered excellent results. The person of the verb was discussed in detail using 12 different criteria. The results of the criteria utilizing the person of the verb are disappointing, and provide some scope for future research. The results rendered by this new approach are firm and easy to interpret. In addition, it is possible to utilize these results when dealing with specific text-critical problems.
Dualism in Jewish apocalyptic and Persian religion : an analysis
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2012-12) Durie, Liezl; Cook, Johann; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The aim of this thesis is to investigate the possible influence of Persian religion on dualism in Jewish apocalyptic literature, with particular attention to 1 Enoch. Many studies have been conducted on Jewish apocalyptic, although relatively few studies concentrate on Persian religious influence. One of the main reasons for this is the problematic dating of Persian sources, all of which appear to date to a later period than the Jewish apocalyptic texts they are suspected of influencing. Scholars who believe in the antiquity of the traditions underlying the Persian texts, such as Boyce, Otzen and Silverman, tend to be positive about the possibility of influence, whereas scholars such as Hanson and VanderKam insist that the origins of apocalyptic traditions can be found within Jewish religion and Mesopotamian culture, respectively. The dualism between God and evil plays a central role in Jewish apocalyptic. This basic dualism manifests itself in various dualities and on four levels. Firstly, on the cosmic level God is pitted against an agent of darkness (Satan/Belial/Mastema/Azazel) and good angels oppose fallen angels or demons. Secondly, in the physical universe God manifests in order, whereas evil shows itself in every area where God’s order is transgressed. Thirdly, on an anthropological-ethical level, mankind is divided into the righteous and the wicked according to the path each individual chooses within himself. Finally, on an eschatological level, the evils of the present age are contrasted with a glorious future that will begin when the messiah has appeared and the final judgment, which is sometimes linked with a resurrection, has taken place. In order to calculate when this new age will dawn, apocalyptic writers divide history into periods. Each of the abovementioned aspects finds a parallel in Persian religious thought, which revolves around the dualism between Ahura Mazda/Spenta Mainyu and Angra Mainyu/Ahriman. Each of the dualistic principles is supported by a host of divine beings and the battle involves nature and mankind, who are expected to choose a side. There is a strong messianic expectation, as well as a well-developed concept of a final judgment that involves resurrection, and the periodization of history is fundamental to the religion. This thesis attempts to trace the development of the abovementioned concepts in Jewish thinking, depending mainly on the Hebrew Bible as representative of ancient Israelite religion. Where discrepancies between Jewish apocalyptic and the ancient religion become evident, the possibility of Persian influence is considered. The investigation will show that each of the abovementioned aspects of the dualism between God and evil in Jewish apocalyptic contain traces of what might be the influence of Persian religion.
Eskatologiese/apokaliptiese oorlog tussen goed en kwaad in die Zoroastrisme, die Judaismse (Qumran) en 'n vroeg-Christelike geskrif (Die apokalips)
(Stellenbosch : University of Stellenbosch, 2008-03) Louw-Kritzinger, Ellie Maria; Cook, Johann; University of Stellenbosch. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
Since time immemorial and throughout the centuries up to the present, the struggle between Good and Evil has played a cardinal role in the “cultural web” of mankind. In the various religions, this dimension of life is linked to the theological issue of human suffering and need in the light of Divine Omnipotence and Grace. Some of the earliest prophets/compilers/authors expressed their own perspectives on this ongoing conflict and burning question. This comparative research stems from a statement by the well-known Iranologist, Mary Boyce. She described the origin of the Christian faith as a new religion that developed out of Judaism, enriched by contact with the old Persian religion, Zoroastrianism. Other researchers also described various aspects of the dualism, eschatology, angelology and demonology, as well as the cosmogony and purity laws, as “obvious” similarities. However, researchers have not yet reached consensus on the possible influence exercised by Zoroastrianism on Judaism and the early Christian writings. The aim of the study is to make a contribution to the ongoing debate from another perspective. Writings from the religions are juxtaposed in full, and analysed and compared according to the war theme and components arising from the writings themselves. A holistic approach offers a more structured starting -point for further research rather to opposing aspects randomly from a large variety of texts. The holistic approach draws attention to similarities as well as differences. Keywords out of each analysis of a component have been placed in a framework to present the summarising comparison more compactly. Historical and literary contexts play an important role in a comparative study. The writings of the three religions originated in four major eras: the Bronze Age/the Sasanian Period, the Hellenistic Era and the Roman Era. The characteristic dualism of Zoroastrianism is limited to the eschatological/apocalyptic war as it is found in the Gathas of Zarathustra. References are also made to the “later” apocalyptic writing, the Bahman Yasht. The most relevant writing in the Judaism (Qumran) is the War Scroll. Richard Bauckham has described Revelations as the “Christian War Scroll”. The analysis of the various aspects shows that core principles in the religions underlie the war themes. Some of the proper names contain defining elements in the determination of dualism and monotheism. Planning and weapons are main components in the strategy of the war - the “revelation” of the modus operandi. The eschatology is caught up in the ultimate end of the war. In the final chapter, the main corresponding elements are placed on a “scale” and “weighed”. Although no further “lexical links” – the weight-bearing criteria of García Martínez – have been found in this study, the amount of corresponding aspects in merely one text per religion is significant. Differences and unique imagery/symbolism put each writing in its own time-slot and framework.
External influences in the Peshitta version of Proverbs
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 1992-03) Steyn, P. E.; Cook, Johann; Claassen, W. T.; Brock, S. P.; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The study of the Peshitta version of Proverbs started as research into the text-critical value of the Peshitta. By utilising the translation technique an attempt was also made to determine on which Vorlage(n) this book is based. In the course of this investigation it became clear that all the additions, of which the longest are found in chapter 9, cannot be sufficiently explained only by ordinary translation technique and/or style. Although these pluses may have been in the translator's Vorlage, there is considerable concurrence between the pluses and most of the deviations in the Syriac text with the Greek text, which indicates other reasons for their existence. It can be accepted with reasonable certainty that the Peshitta translator utilised the LXX to a considerable extent in order to establish a legible and simple translation. This fact is widely accepted and most scholars' treatises merely confirm most of the conclusions to which Hermann Pinkuss came in an article published in Z.A . W. of 1894. The exact nature and extent of this utilisation, however, have not been satisfactorily established as yet. In all the ordinary cases this utilisation extends from difficult and corrupt readings to readings that, according to the translator, may have been ethically or morally unacceptable. It was reasonably successfully shown that the Peshitta translator used a Hebrew text that probably did not differ from the MT to any significant degree. For example, the translator experienced similar problems with the MT to those that modem translators have to contend with. These problems were solved with the aid of the LXX and sometimes by means of harmonisation with other verses in the text. Judging from the translation technique of the Peshitta version of Proverbs it is clear that, where the translator came across some difficulty in the Hebrew text, he used the interpretation of the LXX quite liberally. The term interpretation should actually be stressed, because the Peshitta translator did not merely translate from the LXX. The tendency of the Syriac translation is always in line with the translation technique, which primarily attempted to explain what is written in the Hebrew. For this reason there are, in relation to the MT, fewer additions in the Peshitta than in the LXX. The Peshitta translator tried wherever possible to remain as close to the Hebrew text as the Vorlage and his understanding of the text would allow him. A larger problem, however, is to explain the existence of more extensive additions, which in some cases consist of several verses. After considering the relation of the Peshitta with other versions, it became clear that the possibility of other external influences, including the social and religious environment, had to be considered. Pinkuss stated that the Peshitta does not appear to present any connection with the Jewish or Christian religion. It should be borne in mind, however, that Judaism and Christianity share many ethical tenets. Furthermore, the Peshitta translation reveals remarkable nuances and would present only extremely subtle references to any belief. The Peshitta is after all a Christian document and the additions should perhaps be explained as an extention of the translation technique, which is to present the reader with a clear, unambiguous translation. Therefore the translation should perhaps be considered closely within the context of its religious milieu, namely, Syriacspeaking Christianity. Firstly, one should not expect Christianity in the East to present the reader with a dynamic, equivalent translation where every element of the text is carefully translated into Syriac. The rules of translation in the Syriac Church differed from the conventional translation technique in the West (which was too often concerned only with the avoidance of misinterpretation). It developed independently, because in a critical stage of the development of the Peshitta text (the fourth and fifth century), the Syriac Church was virtually cut off from the intellectual influence and debate in the West, which was critical in combatting the extensive increase in sectarian and heretical tendencies in the Church. Furthermore, most of the believers, and even priests, knew only Syriac. , Secondly, Eastern Christianity had more than Hellenism and a few philosophies that opposed the truth. The Church had to contend with a prolific number of cults and religions (not to mention sects) in all the cities in Syria. Thirdly, due to political factors, Syriac literature developed its own identity and traditions with regard to the establishment of Christianity in Osroene. The long strife that the Church had experienced with the Church in the West also fostered a unique self-image that the Syriac Church had of itself in the world. The schools in Edessa played a major part in perpetuating this tradition. Owing to the above-mentioned factors there would have been a number of readings in the Peshitta text that, according to the translator, warranted the changing of some words and phrases in the translation of Proverbs. Some familiar symbols and words with familiar references in the Syriac mind may have influenced the translation as well. Some variants are antiheretical and others are anti-anthropomorphic. The influence of Judaism should not be discarded in seeking the "rules" of translation in the Eastern Churches. The influence was more marked here than in the West. Numerous Jews even converted to Christianity and the intellectual contribution of Jews made to the Syriac Church and life is undeniable. Some Jewish practices (like the crowning of the bridegroom during the wedding ceremony) were maintained in the Eastern Churches. That this influence should come to the translation of texts was inevitable. Of course, the date of translation is important, but traditions did remain for a long time. In the light of all this, the additions in Proverbs do not render the Peshitta a Targum, but they should be considered a legitimate part of translation in Syriac Christianity. In conclusion, the external influences that played a part in the translation of the Peshitta are complex and are not limited to the Peshitta Vor/age(n) alone. The nature and extent of the influences on the translation of the Peshitta need to be extended to the socioreligious milieu as well. All the verses discussed in this thesis are investigated on their own merits and any identifiable influence is considered.
Investigating apparent commonalities between the apocalyptic traditions from iIan and second-temple Judaism
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2008-03) Van der Merwe, Jeanne; Cook, Johann; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
This thesis seeks to investigate the possible influence of Iranian apocalyptic on the Judaean apocalyptic literature, which was widely disseminated in the Near East during the Hellenistic and Roman phases of the Second Temple Period (c. 539 BCE- 70 CE). The similarities between Zoroastrianism and Judaism have been the object of scholarly study for more than a century. Iranologists such as Zaehner, Widengren and Boyce were particularly partial to the notion that Zoroastrianism influenced Judaism. They felt such influences were an inevitable consequence of the Judaeans living under Achaemenian rule for almost two centuries, and in close proximity of Persian communities for some centuries after the demise of the Achaemenid Empire. They based their conclusions on literary parallels between some key biblical passages and Persian literature, linguistic evidence and the obviously dualistic nature of both religions. Recently, however, this point of view has come in for criticism from biblical scholars like Barr and Hanson, who have pointed out that many seemingly Iranian concepts could as easily have emanated from other Near Eastern influences or evolved from within the Judaean tradition. The similarities between the Iranian and Judaean world-view are particularly apparent when considering the apocalyptic traditions from Zoroastrianism and Judaism: Both traditions view the course of history as a pre-determined, linear process in which good and evil are in constant conflict on both a physical and metaphysical level, until a great eschatological battle, introduced by a “messiah” figure, will rid all creation of evil. A judgment of all humanity and resurrection are envisaged in both traditions, as well as an utopian eternal life free of evil. However, it is very difficult to prove that these two apocalyptic traditions are in any way related, as most of the apocalyptic works from Iran are dated considerably later than the Judaean apocalypses, which mostly originated during the Hellenistic period. The apocalyptic phenomena within the two traditions are also not always entirely similar, raising the possibility that they are indeed not the result of cultural interaction between the Iranians and Judaeans. Furthermore, one must also consider that many phenomena constituting apocalyptic occurred widely during the Second Temple Period in the Ancient Near East, on account of the general state of powerlessness and disillusionment brought about by the Macedonian conquest of the Achaemenid Empire and the resulting political unrest. This study investigates the relations between Judaeans and Iranians under Achaemenian rule, the political and religious background and apocalyptic traditions of both these peoples in an attempt to ascertain whether Iranian beliefs did indeed influence Judaean apocalypticism. These investigations will show that, given the cultural milieu of the Ancient Near East in the Second Temple period, contemporary Greek evidence of Zoroastrian beliefs and the interpretative bent of Judaean scribal and priestly classes, there is a strong likelihood that seemingly Iranian concepts in Judaean apocalypticism were indeed of Iranian origin.
Is wisdom a mediatrix in Sirach? : a study of the wisdom poems
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 1999-12) Rogers, Jessie Florence; Cook, Johann; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The figure of Woman Wisdom appears in several key poems in Sirach, namely Sir 1:1-10,1:11-30,4:11-19,6:18-37,14:20-15:10,24:1-34 and 51:13-30. Woman Wisdom is a metaphor that employs feminine imagery to speak of the tradition as taught by the sages and contained within the sacred writings of Judaism. Ben Sira uses it to show that the Jewish tradition is the pathway to genuine piety. The metaphor functions to reinforce the implicit claim of conservative scribal circles to be the legitimate interpreters of the tradition. The personification of wisdom is the basic trope underlying the presentations of Wisdom. This feminine personification is then filled out with a number of metaphors, rendering Woman Wisdom an easily recognisable entity in the text despite the wide range of imagery applied to her. The wisdom personified includes both the content of the Jewish tradition and the disposition to live in conformity with that tradition, summed up in the fear of the Lord. This tradition is seen as the distillation of universal wisdom. The gender of Woman Wisdom is rhetorically important in those poems where wisdom is presented as a desirable goal to be passionately and zealously sought. But Ben Sira does not exploit the metaphor 'wisdom as woman' as a conceptual tool for reflection on wisdom in and of itself or in its relationship to God. In Sir 24 the feminine dimension of the Wisdom figure recedes; Wisdom is personified as an angelic figure and her gender becomes simply a fact of grammar. The metaphor 'wisdom as angel' may be an attempt to picture wisdom in the closest possible association with the Lord and in the most exalted position possible without compromising monotheism. Angels are also portrayed as mediators in Second Temple writings. The movement and action of Wisdom, God and human beings relative to each other in the Wisdom poems provides hints that the Jewish tradition plays a vital role in the relationship between God and humanity. God relates to human beings by revealing to them wisdom, which finds its most perfect expression in the Jewish written tradition. How a person relates to this tradition will determine how God relates to that person. Conversely, it is impossible to find wisdom if one does not have the correct attitude toward God and if one does not live according to the tradition. Since all wisdom is from God, there is no wisdom outside of what God gives, and the wisdom God has given is embodied in the traditions of Israel.
Joodse Gnostiek in die ‘Evangelie van Judas’
(Stellenbosch : University of Stellenbosch, 2008-02-19) De Villiers, Johannes Albertus; Cook, Johann; University of Stellenbosch. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
Recent studies, especially since the Nag Hammadi discoveries, indicate that “Gnosticism” often functions as a constructed “Other” in attempts to define Christian orthodoxy, as well as a catch-phrase for a range of diverse religious phenomena in late Hellenism. If the unity of Gnosticism is a construct, the search for a single origin of Gnosticism is probably also futile. Rather, the influence of several sources – Platonic, Christian, Iranian, existential and Jewish – to the Gnostic phenomena should be studied. Texts labled Sethian by modern scholars show strong traces of a Jewish cosmology, vocabulary and mythology. Five possible routes for the transmission of Jewish motifs to Sethian Gnosticism are pointed out: failed apocalyptic expectations (Grant); allegorical interpretations of the Law among Philo and Alexandrian Jews (Pearson); Christianity as vehicle for transmission (Pétrement); Palestinian and Samaritan speculation (Perkins); and the influence of the Jewish Wisdom tradition (Rudolph and MacRae). Traces of Judaism in Gnostic Sethian texts can be located using a motif study. Fallon has done such a study of the so-called Sabaoth pericopes. In this thesis a similar study is done of the “Gospel of Judas”. The study shows that this text is Christian, preoccupied with a sectarian Christian debate. The apostolic church is denounced and a Sethian Gnosticism (noticeably influenced by Judaism) is posited as alternative. To that end a Sethian cosmological sermon, with strong Jewish motifs, is attributed to Jesus in which he holds forth Sethian cosmology as an alternative to a discredited rival form of Christianity. The most prominent of Jewish motifs in the cosmological passage of the Judas text are the names, functions and descriptions of angels, but it also includes numerological speculation and figures such as Seth.
Kleopatra VII in Egipte en Salome Aleksandra in Palestina : n kultuur-antropologiese studie van twee vroue uit die Hellenistiese tydvlak
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 1998) Rabie, Letitia; Cook, Johann; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The Hellenistic age is regarded as one of the most important periods in world history. It commenced in 330 B.C. with Alexander the Great's successful expeditions to the countries of the ANE. After his death in 323 B.C., the Empire which he founded was subdivided between his successors, the Diadochi. The western part of the Empire went to Lysimachus and Cassander, and the eastern part to Seleucus. Egypt went to Ptolemy, who promptly annexed Palestine. With this move Ptolemy gained control of the eastern trade and caravan routes. These territories remained under Hellenistic rule for ±300 years until they became Roman Provinces towards the end of the first century B.C. As a result of the eastward expansion of Greece, the inhabitants of the ANE were exposed to Hellenistic influence. They came into close contact with the Greek way of life, thought and culture as well as the military expertise of their conquerors. The meeting which took place between the cultures of the East and the West resulted in a new phenomenon, namely Hellenism. This new culture had a profound impact on the development of the economy, religion and culture of Egypt and Palestine. The impact of Hellenism brought about significant changes in practically all facets of the people's lives in those two countries, which were dominated by the Hellenists. The changes were profound and became the basis of our Western civilization, especially in fhe fields of science, religion and culture. Certain modern historians differ from the traditional view emphasizing the cultural influence that Hellenism had on the peoples of the ANE and that the Greeks spread their culture to the countries of the ANE intentionally. They are of the opinion that Hellenism is badly misrepresented by traditional historians, who have been biased and one sided in their research. They claim that newly discovered papyri and artifacts enable them to take a holistic view of this very important period and accordingly their views differ from those of the traditionally accepted views of Hellenism. They are of the opinion that the traditional view was designed as moral justification for what was, in essence, a largescale economic and imperial exploitation of the countries of the ANE. · Cleopatra VII was the last Ptolemaic Queen of Egypt. She reigned for 19 years, from 51 B.C. until her death in 30 B.C., when the Romans took possession of Egypt. Salome Alexandra was the last Hasmonian Queen. She ruled her country for 9 years until her death in 67 B.C. Both queens had to cope with internal conflicts between certain factions as well as with international pressure, which they dealt with in an exemplary fashion. Both were exceptional and remarkable women who ruled their countries with insight, wisdom and diplomacy. They are badly misrepresented in literature as a result of their opponents' malicious propaganda. Cleopatra is remembered as the immoral and seductive eastern queen who beguiled the two most famous and powerful Roman generals, while Salome Alexandra is regarded as the lackey of the Pharisees. The resemblance of the Hellenistic world to our own world is overwhelming. In the modern world socio-economic circumstances, religious groupings, political manoeuvring, dissatisfaction, strikes and violence, bear a remarkable resemblance to similar situations in the Hellenistic period, especially in South Africa, where the transitional phase is causing fundamental changes and adjustments which bear interesting similarities to the impact of Hellenism in antiquity.
Legalism and apocalypticism in early Judaism
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 1999-11) Depoix, D. J.; Cook, Johann; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Arts. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Early Judaism, between approximately 200 BCE and 70 CE, had developed two significant strains of belief which affected the religious and social conduct of the various sections of the population: legalism and apocalypticism. They had evolved over a long historical period, influenced by political developments and social insecurity within Palestine, and by the destabilizing effects of Hellenization on the traditional values of Judaism. The literature of the period indicates separate groups within the diversified culture of Judaism, in which allegiance was to either Temple-based adherence to the Law or to the dissident apocalyptic tradition, with different eschatological expectations. In contrast, the Qumranic, socially-integrated, sectarians combined within their thought-processes and praxis both an extremely strict legalism and also significant elements of apocalyptic belief. They were able to accommodate both aspects because of a realized eschatology which considered the group to be the sole chosen remnant of Israel, already in the company of the holy angels and predestined for salvation. Within the greater Jewish milieu, legalism and apocalypticism were oppositional forces : within Qumran they were complementary. Rigid legalism, to maintain ritual purity, would hasten the imminent eschaton, with apocalyptic annihilation of evil by God and his angels.
Matthew 22:37-40 : a contextual approach
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 1993-03) Barkhuizen, Glenn Warren; Cook, Johann; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The assumption that contextuality only refers to contemporary extra-textual issues and that texts from the past could be read without taking full cognisance of the diversity of contextual influences impinging on them is challenged. This is done by redefming contextuality as a timeless phenomenon. Different contextual levels in and around a text are identified, viz. the reader's context, textual context, growing context and original context. The interplay between and role of each context is described with reference to Matthew 22:37-40. The influence of the Old Testament on this particular section, with reference to the same variety of contextual aspects, is also illustrated. The manner in which Matthew interpreted the relevant Old Testament texts, viz. Deuteronomy 6:5 and Leviticus 19:18, is used to sustain the argument. The conclusion describes the relation between a text and its context, remembering that this implies all identified contextual aspects.
Psalms 38 and 145 of the Septuagint
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2010-12) Gauthier, Randall Xerxes; Cook, Johann; University of Stellenbosch. Faculty of Arts and Social Science. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The present dissertation is a commentary on Psalms 38 and 145 in the Septuagint (LXX) version, or more accurately, the Old Greek (OG) version. Specifically, this dissertation attempts to understand the semantic meaning of these psalms at the point of their inception, or composition, i.e. as translated literary units derivative of a presumed Semitic Vorlage. Stated differently, this dissertation sets out to understand how these psalms were interpreted in translation by the translator(s). With the task of interpretation comes the assumption that the “original” or “oldest” verifiable text can be first established since neither the OG nor its Vorlage are known to be extant. To this end it is necessary to begin with the best critical editions available while also attempting to reconstruct a viable representative of the OG and Vorlage in the light of standard text-critical criteria and translation technique. Although the Old Greek text is the object of study, the transmission history and related history of interpretation for both the Greek and Hebrew are selectively examined insofar as they are necessary as comparisons for the LXX at the point of its inception, and the Vorlage from which it was derived. This work assumes – in accordance with the way translation may be understood generally – that the translator(s) of the Psalms were attempting to communicate his/her Vorlage to a new audience. In this respect translation may be viewed as communication that crosses a language boundary. As such, both lexical replication and idiomatic representation fall within the scope of interpretation. Both phenomena occur in Ps 38 and 145 in varying degrees and both phenomena comprise aspects of the translator’s cross-lingual communication. Chapter 1 establishes preliminary concepts regarding translation in terms of isomorphic and isosemantic representation, textual criticism of the Psalter, and select MSS and witnesses used throughout the study. Chapter 2 surveys key modern translations of the Septuagint as well as certain trends in Translation and Communication Studies for methodological and hermeneutical approaches. Chapter 3 derives working methodological principles based upon the discussions in chapters 1 and 2. Chapters 4 and 5 are detailed, word-by-word, clause-by-clause, commentaries on Psalms 38 and 145 respectively. Chapter 6 offers a summary and conclusions.
A quest for the assumed LXX Vorlage of the explicit quotations in Hebrews
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2009-03) Steyn, Gert J.; Cook, Johann; Thom, Johan; University of Stellenbosch. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
The Vorlage of the explicit quotations in Hebrews remains an unresolved matter to date – despite the fact that it is an important pre-requisite before one can attempt to investigate the function of the quotations within their NT context. The selection, origin and version of the explicit quotations is a neglected aspect of previous studies. This Quest attempted to address these matters mainly from a tradition historical and a text critical angle. It follows the ground plan of Hebrews‘ own presentation of two sets of quotations in pairs – the first set consisting of hymnic texts and the second a quotation from the Torah, which is alternated between quotations from the Psalms and from the Prophets. The investigation considers each quotation in the light of possible alternative Vorlage(n) to those of the printed versions and interacts with previously proposed hypotheses – such as the ―Testimony Book‖ hypothesis, liturgy-, homily-, and midrash hypotheses. It became clear during the course of the investigation that, although Hebrews might have known a large number of quotations from the early Jewish (DSS; Philo) and early Christian (Paul, Gospels) traditions, he also expanded on some of those and added some other (mainly the longer) quotations. The latter include, for instance, Pss 40(39), 95(94), and Jer 31(38) – often accompanied by the author‘s reworking and own midrash on the passage with ring compositional features. The quotations are almost always introduced with a verb of saying and with a large number of them being presented in combination with a reference to an existing promise of God. Regarding the Dead Sea Scrolls, there are a number of similarities between particularly 4QMidrEschat, the Hodayot and the Pesharim – documents that are representative of a hermeneutic tradition of creatively working with and interpreting OT passages. Almost all of the Torah quotations are brief and (including the quotation from Prov 3) occurred already in the works of Philo of Alexandria, mainly in his Legum allegoriae 3. Their readings agree with each other – both of them often against the LXX and MT versions, which might be an indication of another version (the ―Old Greek?‖) that was used by both. Quotations that show an overlap with the then existing NT literature at the time that Hebrews wrote, are almost exclusively to be found in Romans and 1 Corinthians. The early Christian liturgical formula of the institution of the Eucharist seemed to have played a role in at least the quotation pair Exod 24:8 (―blood‖) and Ps 40:7-9 (―body‖).
Reconstructing 1 Samuel chapter 3
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 1993-03) Adair, James Robert; Cook, Johann; Deist, F. E.; Van Rooy, H. R.; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Arts & Social Science . Dept. of Ancient Studies.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: My Ph.D. dissertation proposed a four-step procedure for recovering the earliest possible text of the Old Testament: (1) detennining the lexical and grammatical characteristics of the various secondary (non-Hebrew) witnesses; (2) determining the literary and theological characteristics of the same witnesses; (3) retroverting the non-Hebrew witnesses wherever significant variants occur; (4) evaluating the Hebrew and retroverted variants and reconstructing a Hebrew Vorlage presumed to lie behind all of the extant witnesses. The dissertation itselfcompleted the fIrst two of these steps, which a..rnount to a determination of the significant variants (i.e., those that probably point to a Hebrew reading different from M'I) of the secondary wiblesses. It is the goal of this thesis to complete the analysis and produce a critical, eclectic Hebrew text of 1 Samuel 3. Before attempting to retrovert the different secondary witnesses, a number ofproblem areas need to be addressed, including developing a methodology for retroverting versional readings that is as scientific as possible, the Hebrew script used in the Vorlagen of the various versions, and the orthography of the Vorlagen and of the reconstructed archetype. The methodology used for retroverting secondary witnesses is informed by the works of Margolis, Tov, and others, and the translation techniques of the versions as. determined in mydissertation playa large role. The methodology must be modified somewhat when analyzing the partial secondary witnesses (the Lucianic and Hexaplaric recensions of LXX). Once the secondary witnesses have been retrov~their data is combined with that of MT, 4QSama, and a few other Hebrew witnesses and evaluated. The problems of multiple literary editions and conjectural emendations are examined, as are the merits ofexternal and internal evidence in making text-critical decisions. After each of the units ofvariation has been evaluated, the possibility that LXX represents an edition of Samuel different from MT is considered on the basis of the evidence from chapter 3. Finally, a critical edition of the chapter, replete with critical apparatuses containing both the original and retroverted readings of the secondary witnesses, presents the fruits of the study.
A socio-historical analysis of Jewish banditry in first century Palestine 6 to 70 CE
(Stellenbosch : University of Stellenbosch, 2005-12) Lincoln, Lawrence Ronald; Cook, Johann; University of Stellenbosch. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
This thesis sets out to examine, as far as possible within the constraints of a limited study such as this, the nature of the Jewish protest movement against the occupation of their homeland by the Roman Empire in the years after the territory had become a direct province of the Empire. These protests were mainly instigated by and initially led by Jewish peasants who experienced the worst aspects of becoming a part of the larger Roman world.
A thematic study of doctrines on death and afterlife according to Targum Qohelet
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2019-04) Lincoln, Lawrence Ronald; Cook, Johann; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of Ancient Studies.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This dissertation examined how the Targum radically transformed Qohelet’s pessimistic, secular and cynical views on the human condition by introducing a composite rabbinical theology throughout the translation with the purpose of refuting the futility of human existence and the finality of death. The Targum overturned the personal observations of Qohelet and in its place proposed a practical guide for the living according to the principles of rabbinic theological principles. While BibQoh provided few if any solutions for the many pitfalls and challenges of life and lacking any clear references to an eschatology, the Targum on the other hand promoted the promise of everlasting life as a model for a beatific eschatological future. The dissertation demonstrated how the targumist exploited a specific translation strategy to introduce rabbinic ideologies to present the targum as an alternative context to the ideologies of wisdom literature as presented in Biblical Qohelet. The translation follows the Hebrew original but includes numerous additions and expansions from other sources of rabbinic literature. However, it is difficult to follow the original Hebrew text in the mass of disjointed additions. In order to analyse and make sense of the translator’s purpose and strategy, it was necessary to find an analytical tool to organise the many disparate elements of the Targum in order to understand its purpose and intent. For this study, the decision was taken to analyse the theological system as a whole in TgQoh, as it became clear that the targumist had created a unitary approach to the afterlife themes as these could not easily be separated from afterlife passages. I decided to follow the method of Jacob Neusner’s concept of finding religious paradigms as a means to analyse and explain the rabbinic system and its inherent complexity. The paradigms therefore became the building blocks for understanding the cognitive elements of religious experience in the form of a unifying taxonomy. Furthermore, the mass of information concerning an explanatory framework for the pattern of life-death-afterlife–resurrection as a theological system is massive and spread over sources that comprise the entire biblical canon and all the commentaries on it. The aim was to find a suitable method for collating and aggregating the range of topics and then to explain the system. The use of a paradigmatic approach introduced a structured means for explaining the complexity and range of rabbinic beliefs and how these relate to the promise of an afterlife in terms of the Targum and as a means of comparison against the Hebrew version. The use of paradigms drawn from religious experience and the underlying theology enabled the research to connect all the different elements of rabbinical religious categories that feature in the targum. These religious commands became the ultimate guidelines suggested by the Targum for humankind to follow on a progressive path towards living righteous lives according to the Torah in the earthly or mortal phase as the means to achieve the reward of an everlasting life in the world to come.

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