And therapeutic outcomes lopinavir-ritonavir and a rifampicin containing anti-tuberculosis pharmacokinetics in children with tuberculosis/hiv co-infection treated with regimen

Date
2019-10-15
Journal Title
Journal ISSN
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Publisher
Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University
Abstract
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Background Despite the scale-up of the prevention of mother to child transmission of HIV, an estimated 240,000 children were infected in 2013. Currently, The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV and AIDS (UNAIDS) estimates that 110,000 to 260,000 children less than 14 years of age are newly infected annually. Tuberculosis remains an important cause of morbidity and mortality in HIV co-infected children. The overlapping epidemiology of tuberculosis and HIV in sub-Saharan Africa is well known. Despite reductions in incident tuberculosis cases brought about by both the general roll out of antiretroviral therapy (ART) and the improvement of personal health of HIVpositive children, HIV-positive children remain at high risk for tuberculosis. Currently the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends rifampicin containing fixed-dose combinations for treatment of tuberculosis. Rifampicin induces its own metabolism and concentrations are affected by SLCO1B1CT (rs4149032) polymorphism. Rifampicin is well known to cause significant drug-drug interactions through activation of the nuclear pregnane X receptor that in turn affects cytochromes P450, glucuronosyltransferases and p-glycoprotein activities. This activation causes significant drug interactions with protease inhibitors and non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors. In addition, SLCO1B1 521 TC (rs4149056) and CYP3A5 polymorphisms may affect lopinavir exposures through altering uptake and metabolism. Abacavir, together with the protease inhibitor lopinavir co-formulated with the pharmacokinetic enhancing protease inhibitor, ritonavir, is a preferred first-line medication for young children with HIV. Rifampicin causes up to 90% reduction in lopinavir exposure, but there are no data on its effect on abacavir in children. Understanding these interactions is essential to ensure effective co-treatment that will suppress HIV replication during co-treatment. For co-formulated lopinavir with ritonavir in a 4:1 ratio, achieving a morning trough concentration (Ctrough) of ≥1mg/L is associated with acceptable viral load outcomes. Doubling the dose of co-formulated lopinavir-ritonavir-4:1 does not consistently achieve this target in children, but limited data suggested that adding ritonavir to achieve a 1:1 ratio of lopinavir-ritonavir (LPV/RTV-1:1) is successful. Furthermore, modelling data suggested that an 8-hourly adjusted dose may achieve this lopinavir trough concentration target, but there was no pharmacokinetic data to this effect. We undertook studies to evaluate two strategies to adjust medication in co-treated children and performed pharmacokinetic evaluation and safety evaluations during these studies and assessed virological outcomes in the larger study. We also studied the pharmacokinetic profile of abacavir during rifampicin containing first-line tuberculosis therapy. Methods To study the lopinavir morning Ctrough and the abacavir area under the curve from 0- 12 hours (AUC0-12) during LPV/RTV-1:1 we prospectively enrolled HIV-positive children with tuberculosis requiring co-treatment with rifampicin and oral solution lopinavir-ritonavir-4:1. Children weighing 3 kg to 15 kg and a post-conception age more than 42 weeks were included into a prospective, multicentre, open-label, nonrandomized study. Children received lopinavir-ritonavir-4:1 with additional ritonavir to achieve a 1:1 ratio. Weight-banded doses of anti-tuberculosis and antiretroviral medications were used. Three intensive pharmacokinetic evaluations were done: the first in the intensive phase of tuberculosis treatment, the second in the last month of tuberculosis treatment and the third evaluation two weeks after completing tuberculosis treatment. We compared a model-based morning Ctrough of lopinavir at the second assessment and the third assessment and tested for non-inferiority, using a non-inferiority margin of 10%. We also assessed model-based abacavir AUC0-12 during LPV/RTV-1:1 superboosting and thereafter. Safety, tolerability and virological outcomes were assessed through special investigations, including hepatic enzymes, electrocardiogram, viral load tests and resistant tests as well as questionnaires. In the second study, children were switched from standard of care (super-boosted lopinavir-ritonavir 1:1) to receive 2 weeks of adjusted dose 3 times daily lopinavirritonavir 4:1. After 2 weeks an intensive pharmacokinetic evaluation was performed and the patient switched back to standard of care ART. We determined the number of children with a morning Ctrough of lopinavir ≥1mg/L. Safety was assessed by measuring hepatic enzymes. Results For the first strategy (LPV/RTV-1:1) 96 children with a median age of 18.2 months enrolled into a non-inferiority study of super-boosting lopinavir-ritonavir-4:1 to achieve a 1:1 ratio. Of these 96 children, 80 (83%) completed all three pharmacokinetic evaluations. The model-based lopinavir morning Ctrough on super-boosted lopinavir ritonavir 4:1 with additional ritonavir to achieve a 1:1 ratio whilst receiving rifampicinbased tuberculosis treatment was non-inferior to the model-based morning Ctrough in children on lopinavir-ritonavir-4:1 after the end of tuberculosis therapy and superboosting. The model-predicted percentage of morning Ctrough less than 1.0 mg/L after tuberculosis treatment without super-boosting was 8·8% (95% confidence interval [CI] 0·6–19·8), versus 7·6% (95% CI 0·4–16·2) during super-boosting and tuberculosis treatment. At the non-inferiority margin of 10%, this difference of –1·1% (95% CI –6·9 to 3·2) met the criterion for non-inferiority. This strategy was safe and the viral load outcomes were acceptable: children who failed to suppress HIV did not develop resistance. Caretakers reported poor palatability and tolerability of both lopinavirritonavir-4:1 oral solution and ritonavir oral solution. For the second strategy (8-hourly adjusted dosing) 11 children were enrolled into the study assessing adjusted-dose 8-hourly lopinavir-ritonavir 4:1. Children were divided into two weight bands: 5 (45%) were 10–13.9 kg and received 20–24 mg/kg/dose, and 6 (55%) children weighed 6–9.9 kg and received 20–23 mg/kg/dose of lopinavir. Seven children (63.6%) met the suggested morning Ctrough target. Children with a lopinavir mg/kg dose below the median of 21.5mg/kg/dose were more likely to have a morning Ctrough below 1 mg/L (p=0.02). There was a strong correlation between lopinavir and ritonavir concentrations. To model the AUC0-12 of abacavir we included 85 children at PK1, 74 at children at PK2 and 72 children at PK3 on abacavir and in whom pharmacokinetic information was available. Children were participating in the non-inferiority study of super-boosted lopinavir-ritonavir-4:1 to achieve a 1:1 ratio. Abacavir pharmacokinetics was described by a two-compartment model with first-order elimination and transit compartment absorption. Clearance was predicted to reach half its mature value at around 2 months after birth and to be fully mature by approximately 2 years of age. During coadministration of rifampicin and super-boosting with ritonavir, a 36% decrease in bioavailability (and AUC0-12) was found. Conclusions Super-boosting lopinavir-ritonavir-4:1 with ritonavir to a 1:1 ratio during rifampicin containing tuberculosis treatment is non-inferior to lopinavir-ritonavir-4:1 without rifampicin. It is also safe and effective but it is poorly tolerated and has poor palatability. Adjusted 8-hourly dosing requires further study. During super-boosting of lopinavir-ritonavir while on rifampicin containing tuberculosis treatment, there is a drug interaction causing a 36% reduction in abacavir AUC0-12
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Agtergrond Ten spyte van die uitbreiding van die programme vir die voorkoming van moeder-totkind-oordrag van menslike immuungebrekvirus (MIV), is ʼn geskatte 240,000 kinders in 2013 geïnfekteer. Die Gesamentlike Program van die Verenigde Nasies vir MIV en VIGS (UNAIDS) beraam dat daar tans jaarliks 110,000 tot 260,000 kinders jonger as 14 jaar met MIV geïnfekteer word. Tuberkulose bly ʼn belangrike oorsaak van morbiditeit en mortaliteit in kinders wat met beide siektes geïnfekteerd is. Die oorvleuelende epidemiologie van tuberkulose en MIV in Afrika suid van die Sahara is goed beskryf. Daar is ’n afname in die voorkoms van tuberkulosegevalle in volwassenes en kinders met MIV; dit is weens die verbetering in toegang tot antiretrovirale terapie (ART) in die gemeenskap sowel as die verbetering van persoonlike gesondheid van MIV-positiewe persone, maar MIV-positiewe kinders het steeds ʼn hoë risiko vir tuberkulose. Tans beveel die Wêreldgesondheidsorganisasie (WGO) rifampisien-bevattende vastedosis-kombinasies vir die behandeling van tuberkulose aan. Rifampisien induseer metabolisme van rifampisien en die konsentrasie van rifampisien word ook beinvloed deur die SLCO1B1CT (rs4149032) genetiese polimorfismes. Rifampisien is daarvoor bekend dat dit beduidende middel-middel-interaksies veroorsaak deur die aktivering van die kernpregnaan X-reseptore wat op hulle beurt sitochroom P450, glukuronosiltransferase en p-glikoproteïen-aktiwiteit affekteer. Hierdie aktivering veroorsaak belangrike middelinteraksies met protease-inhibeerders en nienukleosied-trutranskriptase-inhibeerders. Die genetiese polimorfismes SLCO1B1 521 TC (rs4149056) en CYP3A5 affekteer ook lopinavirkonsentrasies deur die hepatiese opname en metabolism van die middel. Abacavir, tesame met die proteaseinhibeerder lopinavir gesamentlik geformuleer met die farmakokineties-verhogende protease-inhibeerder, ritonavir, is ʼn voorkeur eerstelinie-medikasie vir jong kinders met MIV. Rifampisien veroorsaak tot 90% afname in lopinavir blootstelling, maar daar is geen data oor die uitwerking daarvan op abacavir by kinders nie. Dit is noodsaaklik om hierdie interaksies te verstaan om doeltreffende gesamentlike behandeling wat MIV-replikasie tydens gesamentlike behandeling onderdruk te verseker. Gelyktydig-geformuleerde lopinavir met ritonavir in ‘n 4:1 verhouding wat ʼn oggend-lopinavir trogkonsentrasie (Ctrog) van ≥ 1mg/L bereik, word met aanvaarbare virusladinguitkomste geassosieer. Verdubbeling van die dosis van gelyktydiggeformuleerde lopinavir-ritonavir-4:1 in kinders wat op rifampisien is, bereik nie hierdie teiken konsekwent nie. Beperkte data wys dat dit wel gebeur met die byvoeging van addisionele ritonavir om ʼn 1:1-verhouding van lopinavir tot ritonavir (LPV/RTV-1:1) te verkry. Verder wys modelleringsdata dat ʼn 8-uurlikse aangepaste dosis van lopinavirritonavir-4:1 tydens rifampisien-behandeling moontlik hierdie lopinavir Ctrog kan bereik, maar daar was geen farmakokinetiese data om hierdie model te ondersteun nie. Ons het navorsing gedoen om twee strategieë vir die aanpassing van lopinavirritonavir-4:1 medikasie in kinders op rifampisien te evalueer. Die studies het farmakokinetiese en veiligheidsevaluering ingesluit. Die virologiese uitkomste is in die groter studie geassesseer. Ons het ook die farmakokinetiese profiel van abacavir gedurende rifampisien-bevattende eerstelinie- tuberkulosebehandeling bestudeer. Om die lopinavir oggend-Ctrog en die abacavir area onder die kurwe van 0 tot 12 uur (AOK0–12) gedurende LPV/RTV-1:1 te bestudeer, het ons prospektief kinders met MIV en tuberkulose wat gelyktydig behandeling met rifampisien en orale oplossing lopinavir-ritonavir-4:1 vereis ingesluit. Kinders met ʼn gewig van 3 kg tot 15 kg en ʼn ouderdom ná konsepsie van meer as 42 weke, is ingesluit in ʼn prospektiewe, multisentrum, oop-etiket, nie-verewekansigde studie. Kinders het lopinavir-ritonavir4:1 ontvang met addisionele ritonavir om ʼn 1:1-verhouding te bereik. Antituberkulose en antiretroviralemiddels is doseer volgens die standaard gewigsgroep-gekoppelde dosisse. Daar is drie intensiewe farmakokinetiese evaluerings gedoen. Die eerste in die intensiewe fase van tuberkulosebehandeling, die tweede in die laaste maand van tuberkulosebehandeling en die derde evaluering twee weke ná afloop van tuberkulosebehandeling. Ons het ʼn modelgebaseerde oggend-Ctrog van lopinavir tydens die tweede en derde assesserings vergelyk en vir nie-inferioriteit getoets deur ʼn nie-inferioriteitsgrens van 10% te gebruik. Ons het ook modelgebaseerde abacavir AOK0–12 tydens LPV/RTV-1:1 super-versterking en daarna geassesseer. Veiligheid en virologiese uitkomste is met lewerensieme, elektrokardiogram, virusladingtoetse en weerstandigheidstoetse evalueer; verdraagsaamheid van middels is met behulp van vraelyste assesseer. In die tweede studie is kinders van standaardsorg (LPV/RTV-1:1) oorgeskakel om vir 2 weke ʼn aangepaste dosis lopinavir-ritonavir-4:1 drie-maal per dag te ontvang. Ná 2 weke is ʼn intensiewe farmakokinetiese evaluering gedoen en die pasiënt is teruggeskakel na standaard ART-sorg met LPV/RTV-1:1. Ons het die aantal kinders met ʼn oggend-Ctrog van lopinavir ≥ 1mg/L bepaal. Veiligheid is geassesseer deur die bepaling van lewerensieme. Resultate Vir die eerste strategie (LPV/RTV-1:1) is 96 kinders met ʼn mediaanouderdom van 18.2 maande ingesluit in ʼn nie-inferioriteitstudie van lopinavir-ritonavir-4:1 met addisionele ritonavir om ʼn 1:1-verhouding te verkry. Van hierdie 96 kinders het 80 (83%) al drie die farmakokinetiese evaluerings voltooi. Die modelgebaseerde lopinavir-oggend-Ctrog wanneer super-versterkte lopinavir-ritonavir-4:1 met addisionele ritonavir ontvang word om ʼn 1:1-verhouding te bereik terwyl rifampisiengebaseerde tuberkulosebehandeling ontvang word, was nie-inferior ten opsigte van die modelgebaseerde oggend-Ctrog by kinders op lopinavir-ritonavir-4:1 na afloop van tuberkulosebehandeling en super-versterking. Die model-voorspelde persentasie vir oggend-Ctrog minder as 1.0 mg/L ná tuberkulosebehandeling sonder super-versterking was 8·8% (95% geloofwaardigheidsinterval [CI] 0·6–19·8), teenoor 7·6% (95% CI 0·4–16·2) gedurende super-versterking en tuberkulosebehandeling. By die nieinferioriteitsmarge van 10% het hierdie verskil van –1·1% (95% CI–6·9 tot 3·2) voldoen aan die vooraf uitgesette kriterium vir nie-inferioriteit. Hierdie strategie was veilig en die virusladinguitkomste was aanvaarbaar: kinders wat nie daarin geslaag het om MIV te onderdruk nie, het nie weerstandigheid ontwikkel wat enige verandering van terapie genoodsaak het nie. Versorgers het slegte smaak en swak medikasie verdraagsaamheid van beide lopinavir-ritonavir-4:1 orale oplossing en ritonavir orale oplossing gerapporteer. Om die tweede strategie, 8-uurlikse aangepaste dosering lopinavir-ritonavir-4:1, te toets is 11 kinders in die studie ingesluit. Van die 11 kinders was 5 (45%) 10–13.9 kg en het 20–24 mg/kg/dosis ontvang, en 6 (55%) kinders het 6–9.9 kg geweeg en het 20–23 mg/kg/dosis lopinavir ontvang. Sewe van die 11 kinders het die oggend-Ctrogteiken bereik. Kinders met lopinavir mg/kg-dosis onder die mediaan van 21.5 mg/kg/dosis het meer dikwels ʼn oggend- Ctrog van minder as 1 mg/L (p = 0.02) gehad. Daar was ʼn sterk korrelasie tussen lopinavir- en ritonavir-konsentrasies. Om die AOK0-12 van abacavir te modelleer, het ons abacavirkonsentrasies gebruik van kinders wat aan die nie-inferioriteitstudie van LPV/RTV-1:1 deel geneem het. Vyf en tagtig kinders by PK1, 74 kinders by PK2 en 72 kinders by PK3 op abacavir en van wie die farmakokinetiese inligting beskikbaar was, is by die analise ingesluit. Die model het getoon dat abacavir-farmakokinetika beskryf is deur ʼn tweekompartementmodel met eerste-orde-eliminasie en oorgangskompartementabsorpsie. Verder toon die model dat die opruiming van abacavir teen die helfte van die volwasse spoed is by 2 maande ouderdom and teen die ouderdom van 2 jaar behoort dit die selfde te wees as in volwassenes. Gedurende gesamentlike toediening van rifampisien en super-versterking met ritonavir is ʼn 36% afname in biobeskikbaarheid (en AOK0–12) van abacavir bevind. Gevolgtrekking Lopinavir-ritonavir-4:1 met ritonavir tot ʼn 1:1-verhouding gedurende rifampisienbevattende tuberkulosebehandeling is nie-inferior aan lopinavir-ritonavir-4:1 sonder rifampisien. Dit is ook veilig en effektief maar dit word swak verdra en het ʼn slegte smaak. Aangepaste 8-uurlikse dosering benodig verdere studie. Daar is ʼn middelinteraksie wat ʼn 36% afname in abacavir AOK0-12 veroorsaak indien rifamipisien saam net LPV/RTV-1:1 gegee word.
Description
Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2020.
Keywords
Pharmacokinetics, children, Tuberculosis in children, HIV co-infection, Lopinavir-Retonavir, Rifampicin, Drugs -- Metabolism
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