The role of nitrogen limitation in cryptococcal virulence and drug tolerance

Date
2021-12
Journal Title
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Publisher
Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University
Abstract
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Cryptococcosis, a disease caused by members of the Cryptococcus neoformans/Cryptococcus gattii species complex, has the highest incidence rate among systemic HIV-associated fungal infections and accounts for more than 15% of all AIDS-related deaths globally. The etiological agents of cryptococcosis are widely distributed within the environment with ecological reservoirs including pigeon guano and the woody debris of numerous tree species. Within its natural habitat, C. neoformans must adapt to severe nutrient stresses. In the present work, we delved into the effects of one such environmental stress, namely nitrogen limitation, as it relates to cryptococcal virulence. Moreover, we explored the clinical relevance of these effects by investigating the role of nitrogen stress in cryptococcal susceptibility to two commonly used antifungal drugs, amphotericin B (AmB) and fluconazole (FLU). By culturing C. neoformans and C. gattii in media with different ecologically relevant nitrogen concentrations, we found that low nitrogen conditions enhanced cryptococcal virulence factor production, as well as the levels of the membrane sterol and antifungal target, ergosterol. Evaluation of drug tolerance using time-kill methodology revealed that nitrogen limited cultures had the highest survival percentages in the presence of both AmB and FLU, suggesting that nitrogen concentration may indeed influence drug tolerance. For a deeper understanding of the effects of nitrogen limitation on pathogenic cryptococci, we investigated the transcriptomic response of C. neoformans to low nitrogen concentrations using RNA-sequencing. It was found that nitrogen limited conditions upregulated the expression of antifungal tolerance- related genes, including those involved in ergosterol biosynthetic processes and cell wall integrity. Low nitrogen conditions were also found to modulate the expression of numerous virulence-associated genes, such as CTR4 and CGP1, which encode a copper transporter and a microtubule-associated protein, respectively. Using gene deletion mutants, we demonstrated for the first time that Ctr4 and Cgp1 are functionally associated with cryptococcal adaptation to nitrogen availability, by contributing to cryptococcal growth in low nitrogen conditions, nitrogen source assimilation, oxidative stress tolerance and antifungal susceptibility. Finally, we evaluated the in vivo effects of cryptococcal pre-adaptation to nitrogen limited environments using a Galleria mellonella infection model and by studying cryptococcal- macrophage interactions. We showed that low nitrogen conditions enhanced the virulence of C. neoformans in an invertebrate host and demonstrated that this nutritional stress influences uptake of the fungus by human macrophages. These findings ultimately highlight the importance of isolate origin in the cryptococcal-host interaction. Altogether, the insights gained from our research greatly enhance our understanding of the role of nitrogen availability in cryptococcal pathogenesis and antifungal tolerance, and partially improve our knowledge on how nitrogen influences the survival of these fungal pathogens in natural and host niches.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Kriptokokkose, ‘n siekte wat deur lede van die Cryptococcus neoformans/Cryptococcus gattii spesiekompleks veroorsaak word, het die hoogste voorkomssyfer onder sistemiese MIV- geassosieerde fungus infeksies en is verantwoordelik vir meer as 15% van alle VIGS- verwante sterftes wêreldwyd. Met ekologiese reservoirs, soos duiwemis en die houtagtige puin van talle boomsoorte, word etiologiese agente van kriptokokkose wyd verspreid in die omgewing aangetref. In sy natuurlike habitat moet C. neoformans by hewige voedingstres aanpas. In hierdie studie het ons die gevolge van een so ‘n omgewingstres, naamlik stikstofbeperking, op kriptokokkale virulensie nagespeur. Verder het ons die kliniese relevansie van hierdie gevolge ondersoek deur te kyk na die rol van stikstofstres in kriptokokke se vatbaarheid vir twee antifungale middels, amfoterisien B (AmB) en flukonasool (FLU), wat algemeen gebruik word. Deur C. neoformans en C. gattii in media met verskillende ekologies-relevante stikstofkonsentrasies te kweek, het ons gevind dat lae stikstoftoestande die produksie van kriptokokkale virulensiefaktore verhoog, asook die vlakke van die membraansterol en antifungale teiken, ergosterol. Evaluering van geneesmiddeltoleransie deur middel van tyd- dood-metodologie het getoon dat stikstofbeperkte kulture die hoogste oorlewingspersentasies in die teenwoordigheid van beide AmB en FLU het, wat daarop dui dat stikstofkonsentrasie wel ‘n invloed op die geneesmiddeltoleransie kan hê. Vir 'n dieper begrip van die impak van stikstofbeperking op patogene kriptokokke, het ons die transkriptomiese reaksie van C. neoformans teen lae stikstofkonsentrasies deur middel van RNS-volgordebepaling ondersoek. Daar is gevind dat stikstofbeperkte toestande die uitdrukking van antifungale toleransieverwante gene reguleer, insluitend dié wat by ergosterol biosintetiese prosesse en selwandintegriteit betrokke is. Daar is ook gevind dat lae stikstoftoestande die uitdrukking van talle virulensie-geassosieerde gene, soos die koper-draer CTR4 en die mikrotubule- geassosieerde proteïen CGP1, moduleer. Deur gebruik te maak van ctr4∆- en cgp1∆- geenuitwissingsmutante, het ons vir die eerste keer getoon dat hierdie virulensie-gene funksioneel met stikstofbeperking geassosieer word deur by te dra tot kriptokokkegroei in lae stikstoftoestande, stikstofbronassimilasie, oksidatiewe stresverdraagsaamheid en vatbaarheid vir antifungale middels. Laastens het ons die in vivo-effekte van kriptokokkale aanpassing by stikstofbeperkte omgewings geëvalueer deur 'n Galleria mellonella-infeksiemodel te gebruik en kriptokokkus- makrofage-interaksies te bestudeer. Ons het getoon dat lae stikstoftoestande die virulensie van C. neoformans in 'n ongewerwelde gasheer verhoog getoon en dat hierdie voedingsstres die opname van die fungus deur menslike makrofage beïnvloed. Hierdie bevindings beklemtoon die belang van isolaat-habitat in die interaksie tussen kriptokokke en die gasheer. In die geheel versterk insigte uit hierdie navorsing, ons begrip van die rol van stikstofbeskikbaarheid in kriptokokkale patogenese en antifungale verdraagsaamheid aansienlik, en verbeter dit ook ons kennis oor hoe stikstof die voortbestaan van hierdie swampatogene in natuurlike en gasheernisse beïnvloed.
Description
Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2021.
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