Pharmacology and intraocular pressure relationship of topical and systemic paracetamol in the adult New Zealand White Rabbit Eye

Date
2022-02
Journal Title
Journal ISSN
Volume Title
Publisher
Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University
Abstract
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Background The main modifiable risk factor in open-angle glaucoma is the increased intraocular pressure (IOP). The primary goal of therapy is to lower IOP in order to slow, or even halt disease progression. Paracetamol has the potential to be repurposed as pharmacotherapy to treat open-angle glaucoma. Endocannabinoid stimulation is now thought to be one of the proposed mechanism of actions of paracetamol and a proposed mechanism by which it lowers IOP. Paracetamol is metabolised to N-arachidonoylaminophenol (AM404) in the brain and spinal cord tissue. In vivo studies found that AM404 significantly increases and prolongs the pharmacological effect of exogenous anandamide, which in turn decreases IOP. Small randomised controlled trials of oral and intravenous (IV) paracetamol demonstrated intraocular lowering properties in humans. This project aims to describe the pharmacokinetics of topical and IV paracetamol and to determine its effect on IOP in the adult New Zealand White Rabbit. Study design and methodology A randomised control trial was conducted using IV and topical 1% paracetamol as well as topical 1% AM404. The study was divided into three separate protocols: Protocol 1: To study the corneal penetration properties of topical 1% paracetamol. Protocol 2: To study the ocular pharmacokinetics and IOP pharmacodynamics after an immediate dose of IV 1% paracetamol. Protocol 3: To study the ocular pharmacokinetics and IOP pharmacodynamics of topical 1% paracetamol, 1% AM404 and 1% paracetamol/AM404 combined. Each protocol utilised paired eye and two-eye design experiments. IOP measurements were done at different time intervals using the Icare Pro© tonometer depending on the experiment. Samples for concentration measurements were taken from the serum, aqueous humour (AH) and the vitreous, while the analysis was done using ultra-performance liquid chromatography, coupled to tandem high-definition mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). Results Protocol 1 Pharmacokinetics: The mean (95% CI) concentration of paracetamol detected in the AH was 4.09 ppm (3.18 to 5.00) at 2 hours and 0.92 ppm (0.60 to 1.24) at 4 hours after an immediate dose of topical 1% paracetamol. Protocol 2 Pharmacokinetics The mean (95% CI) highest paracetamol concentration detected was 14.99 ppm (11.73 – 18.25); 5.99 ppm (5.42 to 6.56) and 4.64 ppm (3.24 to 6.04) at 30 minutes post-dosing in the serum, AH and vitreous respectively. The serum concentration was 31.04 ppm when extrapolating back to 0 minutes. Based on the area under the curve (AUCt0-inf), the vitreous showed the greatest paracetamol exposure (2587.78 min⋅μg/mL) followed by the serum (1323.21 min⋅μg/mL) and the AH (796.25 min⋅μg/mL). The half-life (t1/2) and clearance of the vitreous, AH and serum was 368.20 min, 41.32 mL/min; 74.10 min, 126.37 mL/min and 29.10 min, 76.05 mL/min, respectively. Pharmacodynamics The mean (95% CI) change in IOP from baseline for the left and right eye was +0.30 mmHg (-0.69 to 1.28) at 30 minutes, -0.39 mmHg (-1.26 to 0.48) at 60 minutes, +0.98 mmHg (-1.29 to 3.24) at 90 minutes and -0.78 mmHg (-2.40 to 0.84) at 120 minutes post-dosing. Protocol 3 Pharmacokinetics Half-hourly topical 1% paracetamol had a median (IQR) cumulative AH concentration of 13.0 ppm (13.60) after a 4 hour dosing interval, while hourly topical 1% paracetamol had an AH concentration of 3.60 ppm (4.85). Cumulative mean (95% CI) AH concentrations of paracetamol after half-hourly topical drug application at 4 hours were 0.66 ppm (0.45 to 0.87) for paracetamol/AM404 combined, 0.08 ppm (0.04 to 0.12) for AM404 only and 0.79 ppm (0.52 to 2.17) for paracetamol only. AM404 was detected in the AH of one rabbit receiving paracetamol only eye drops where the recorded level was 0.008 ppm. Pharmacodynamics The integral IOP, defined as the integral of IOP change from baseline over time and calculated as an AUC was -5.1 mmHg⋅hr (95% CI, -10 to 0.41) for the control, -7.5 mmHg⋅hr (95% CI, - 14 to -1.1) for half-hourly topical 1% paracetamol and -4.4 mmHg⋅hr (95% CI, -14 to 5.5) for hourly topical 1% paracetamol over a 4-hour period. When comparing topical paracetamol with topical AM404, the integral IOP was -2.3 mmHg⋅hr (95% CI, -5.9 to 1.3) for the control, -2.0 mmHg⋅hr (95% CI, -5.6 to 1.7) for half-hourly topical 1% AM404, -1.7 mmHg⋅hr (95% CI, -4.5 to 1.2) for half-hourly topical 1% paracetamol and - 3.2 mmHg⋅hr (95% CI, -5.4 to -0.96) for half-hourly topical 1% paracetamol/AM404 combined. Conclusion Paracetamol, but not its metabolite AM404, penetrated the multi-layered cornea via passive diffusion in a dose-dependent fashion. AM404 was measured in the AH, which indicates potential breakdown of paracetamol into AM404 within the ocular tissues. We found a diurnal pattern with IOP lowest in the morning and highest in the afternoon. Additionally, IOP showed marked fluctuations over short periods. Using the integral IOP, it was found that there was a tendency to cause a lowering of IOP over time at higher concentrations of paracetamol in the AH, although this was not found to be significant. Topical AM404 did not show any significant IOP lowering effect.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Agtergrond Die belangrikste veranderbare risikofaktor in oophoekgloukoom is die verhoogde intra-okulêre druk (IOD). Die hoofdoel vir die behandeling daarvan is om die IOD te vertraag, en die siekteverloop selfs te voorkom. Parasetamol beskik oor die potensiaal om heraangewend te word as farmaseutiese behandeling vir oophoekgloukoom. Endokannabinoïed-stimulasie word tans as een van die voorgestelde werkingsmeganismes van parasetamol beskou, asook as ’n moontlike meganisme waarmee dit IOD kan verlaag. Parasetamol word tot N-aragidonoïelaminofenol (AM404) in die brein en rugmurg gemetaboliseer. In vivo-studies het bevind dat AM404 die farmakologiese uitwerking van eksogene anandamiede aansienlik verleng, wat terselfdertyd IOD verlaag. Klein ewekansig gekontroleerde studies met orale en intraveneuse (IV) parasetamol het bevind dat dié middel IOD verminderende eienskappe by die mens het. Die doel van hierdie projek was om die farmakokinetika van topikale en IV parasetamol te bestudeer, asook om die middel se uitwerking op IOD in die Nieu-Seelandse Wit Konyn te bepaal. Studieontwerp en -metodologie ’n Ewekansige kontrolestudie is gedoen waartydens IV en topikale 1%-parasetamol sowel as topikale 1%-AM404 getoets is. Die studie is in drie afsonderlike protokolle verdeel: Protokol 1: Die doel was om die kornealepenetrasie-eienskappe van topikale 1%-parasetamol te bestudeer. Protokol 2: Die doel was om die okulêre farmakokinetika en IOD-farmakodinamika ná ’n onmiddellike dosis IV 1%-parasetamol te bestudeer. Protokol 3: Die doel was om die okulêre farmakokinetika en IOD-farmakodinamika van topikale 1%-parasetamol, 1%-AM404 en 1%-parasetamol-AM404 gesamentlik toegedien te bestudeer. Elke protokol het eksperimentontwerpe met gepaarde oë en twee oë gebruik. Met inagneming van die betrokke eksperiment is IOD-metings teen verskillende tydintervalle met behulp van die Icare Pro®-tonometer gedoen. Monsters vir konsentrasiemetings is van die serum, die waterige oogvog (WO) en die glasvog (GV) verkry, en die ontleding is met behulp van ultraverrigtingvloeistofkromatografie, gepaard met tandemhoëdefinisie-massaspektrometrie (UPLC-MS/MS) gedoen. Resultate Protokol 1 Farmakokinetika Die mediaankonsentrasie (95% vertrouensinterval [VI]) parasetamol in die waterige oogvog was 4.09 dele per miljoen (dpm) (3.18 tot 5.00) ná 2 uur en 0.92 dpm (0.60 tot 1.24) ná 4 uur, nadat ’n onmiddellike dosis topikale 1%-parasetamol toegedien is. Protokol 2 Farmakokinetika Die hoogste mediaankonsentrasie (95% VI) parasetamol gemeet was 14.99 dpm (11.73 – 18.25); 5.99 dpm (5.42 tot 6.56); en 4.64 dpm (3.24 tot 6.04) onderskeidelik in die serum, die WO en die GV teen 30 minute ná dosering. Indien die serumkonsentrasie terugwaarts na 0 minute ekstrapoleer word, is dit 31.04 dpm. Gebaseer op die area onder die kurwe (AUCt0-inf) het die glasvog die grootste blootstelling aan parasetamol getoon (2587.78 min⋅μg/mL), gevolg deur die serum (1323.21 min⋅μg/mL) en die WO (796.25 min⋅μg/mL). Die halfveertyd (t1/2) en opruiming van die GV, WO en serum was onderskeidelik 368.20 min, 41.32 mL/min; 74.10 min, 126.37 mL/min; en 29.10 min, 76.05 mL/min. Farmakodinamika Die mediaanverandering (95% VI) in die IOD vanaf die basislyn van die linker- en regteroog was +0.30 mmHg (-0.69 tot 1.28) teen 30 minute, -0.39 mmHg (-1.26 tot 0.48) teen 60 minute, +0.98 mmHg (-1.29 tot 3.24) teen 90 minute en -0.78 mmHg (-2.40 tot 0.84) teen 120 minute, ná dosering. Protokol 3 Farmakokinetika Die halfuurlikse topikale 1%-parasetamol het ’n mediaan- (kwartielafwyking) kumulatiewe WO-konsentrasie van 13.0 dpm (13.60) ná ’n 4-uur-doseringsinterval getoon, terwyl uurlikse topikale 1%-parasetamol ’n WO-konsentrasie van 3.60 dpm (4.85) bereik het. Die kumulatiewe mediaan-WO-konsentrasie (95% VI) parasetamol ná halfuurlikse doserings van die topikale middel teen 4 uur was 0.66 dpm (0.45 tot 0.87) vir parasetamol-AM404 gekombineerd, 0.08 dpm (0.04 tot 0.12) vir AM404 alleen, en 0.79 dpm (0.52 tot 2.17) met slegs parasetamol. AM404 was meetbaar in die WO van een konyn wat slegs parasetamol-oogdruppels ontvang het. Die vlak was 0.008 dpm. Farmakodinamika Die integrale IOD, gedefinieer as die integraal van die IOD-verandering vanaf die basislyn oor tyd, en dan as ’n area onder die kurwe (AOK) bereken, was -5.1 mmHg⋅hr (95% VI, -10 tot 0.41) vir die kontroles, -7.5 mmHg⋅hr (95% VI, -14 tot -1.1) vir die halfuurlikse topikale 1%-parasetamol en -4.4 mmHg⋅hr (95% VI, -14 tot 5.5) vir die uurlikse topikale 1%-parasetamol oor 4 uur. Wanneer topikale parasetamol met topikale AM404 vergelyk is, was die integrale IOD -2.3 mmHg⋅hr (95% VI, -5.9 tot 1.3) vir die kontroles, -2.0 mmHg⋅hr (95% VI, -5.6 tot 1.7) vir die halfuurlikse dosering van topikale 1%-AM404, -1.7 mmHg⋅hr (95% VI, -4.5 tot 1.2) vir die halfuurlikse topikale 1%-parasetamol en -3.2 mmHg⋅hr (95% VI, -5.4 tot -0.96) vir die halfuurlikse topikale 1%-parasetamol-AM404 gekombineerd. Gevolgtrekking Parasetamol, en nie die AM404-metaboliet daarvan nie, penetreer die veel gelaagde kornea via passiewe diffusie op ’n dosis afhanklike wyse. AM404 is in die waterige oogvog gemeet, wat aandui dat daar ’n potensiële afbreek van parasetamol tot AM404 in die oogweefsel plaasvind. Ons het ’n diurnale IOD-patroon aangedui, met die laagste soggens en die hoogste smiddae. Die IOD het ook merkbare fluktuasies oor kort periodes getoon. Met gebruikmaking van die integrale IOD kon ons aandui dat daar ’n neiging was dat ’n IOD-verlaging met hoër konsentrasies parasetamol oor tyd in die WO bewerkstellig is, alhoewel dit nie juis beduidend was nie. Topikale AM404 het geen beduidende IOD-verlagingseffek getoon nie.
Description
Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2022.
Keywords
Citation