Browsing by Author "Govender, Priyashnie"

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    Use of South African spent pulping liquor to synthesise lignin phenol formaldehyde resins
    (Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University., 2020-03) Govender, Priyashnie; Gorgens, Johann F.; Tyhoda, Luvuyo; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Engineering. Dept. of Process Engineering.
    ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The probable scarcity of petroleum-based products, the resultant price fluctuations, and environmental concerns have driven the need for a total or partial phenol replacement in phenol-based products. Lignin, a biopolymer found in plant biomass, has great potential as a phenol substitute due to its phenolic structure, abundance as a by-product of the paper and pulp industry, and relatively lower cost and toxicity compared to phenol. However, despite its benefits and availability, lignin is rarely exploited for higher-value applications, largely due to its structural complexity and resultant low reactivity. This study aims to investigate the potential of using lignin derived from South African spent pulping liquor as a phenol substitute in phenol formaldehyde resins (PFRs). Six South African pulping-based lignins were investigated. They were characterized in terms of structural, compositional and thermal properties. Thereafter, they were used to synthesize lignin-phenol formaldehyde resins at 100% phenol substitution, labelled as LPF100 resins. These resins were characterized according to structural, curing and shear bonding strength properties. Direct use (unmodified) of the LPF100 resins as adhesives was labelled as R0 LPF100 adhesives. To improve the shear strength properties of the unmodified LPF100 adhesives, the LPF100 resins were modified via the addition of a crosslinker (hexamine) as well as the hardener glyoxal (R1) or the hardener epichlorohydrin (R2). They were labelled as R1 LPF100 and R2 LPF100 adhesives, respectively. The objective of this study was to investigate/determine the extent to which various South African pulping lignins were suitable for replacement of phenol in PFRs for use in the wood industry, specifically plywood boards. The LPF100 resins produced in this study are not expected to fulfil commercial requirements. Instead the intent is to determine the potential of these South African pulping lignins, and show that further research is needed to elevate it to a viable level. Ultimately, from the modified LPF100 adhesives, the best performing were the R1 KF2-P-N LPF100 adhesive and the R2 SL-E-T LPF200 adhesive, both recording 1.4 MPa of shear strength, thus exceeding the GB/T 17657-2013 plywood standard of ≥0.7 MPa. The curing temperature of these two resins are 71°C and 126°C, respectively. Thus, considering both curing and bonding properties, KF2-P-N lignin is a more promising phenol substitute. However, the S-SCB-S resin was a consistent performer, even recording the highest shear strength from the unmodified adhesives (0.5 MPa). Additionally, the S-SCB-S resin had the highest curing rate from all resins samples, and the lowest curing temperature of 68°C. Thus, both the KF2-P-N (pine kraft) and S-SCB-S (bagasse soda) lignins show great potential as a phenol substitute in phenol formaldehyde resins.