Sceletium tortuosum (L.) N.E. Br.: mesembrine alkaloid chemotype signatures in wild type, cultivated and in vitro tissues

Date
2021-04
Journal Title
Journal ISSN
Volume Title
Publisher
Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University
Abstract
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The South African indigenous, medicinal succulent Sceletium tortuosum (L.) N.E. Br., has entered the world stage, as increasing evidence of the anxiolytic and human health applications of its mesembrine alkaloid suite emerges. Clinical trials, confirming ethnopharmacogical accounts linked to their bioactivity, has ensured the demand for these metabolites will increase. Concommittal with this global market opportunity, is the need to optimize and tailor existing horticultural production systems, and the parallel development of alternative, high fidelity, phytopharmaceutical production platforms to meet this demand. To accomplish this, greater insight into the fundamental triggers, endogenous and environmental, determining mesembrine alkaloid signatures in planta is needed. The driving rationale behind this research, therefore, was to populate this current gap in knowledge of the in planta aspects of mesembrine alkaloid biosynthesis. Using the resolving power of ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography mass spectroscopy (UHPLC-MS), to quantify; and multivariate principal component analysis (PCA), to visualise, a quantitative and qualitative examination of the factors shaping chemotype signatures in living tissue was undertaken. Firstly, a global view of the seasonal accumulation patterns of the different mesembrine alkaloids was determined. Chemotype profiles of a single, limited range, wild type population were sampled across the 4 seasons of one year. Correlation with physiological plant growth parameters revealed the accompanying growth phase mesembrine alkaloid expression patterns. During summer, the major alkaloids mesembrine (4.01 ±5.62) mg/kg DW, mesembrenol (2.49 ±2.85) mg/kg and mesembranol (52.79 ±51.29) mg/kg DW and the isomers 6-epimesembrenol (2.10 ±2.19) mg/kg DW and 6-epimesembranol (1.45 ±1.41) mg/kg DW exhibited maximal tissue accumulation. This season, of extreme high temperatures and water scarcity, coincided with greatly curtailed plant growth. Conversely during autumn and winter, during which plant growth is initiated and active, respectively, accumulation minima were recorded. This first report of the seasonal accumulation patterns of the mesembrine alkaloids of S. tortuosum, corroborates and explains for the first time the rational of the traditional practice of the summer harvest of these plants. Significant seasonal alkaloid specific accumulation differences were found, however, large within season variation in alkaloid content was also observed. It is proposed that this variation is underpinned by a large, inherent, intra-population chemical heterogeneity occurring amongst individuals. It is conjectured, based on these observations, that additional significant factors, besides seasonality, are determinate in shaping chemotypic variability of the wild growing material and the suggested possibility of inducibility of these alkaloids, awaits further investigations. A potential photoprotective role of the mesembrine alkaloids is proposed. This conjecture is grounded in the high relative amounts of key mesembrines recorded in summer, the spatial accumulation of specific mesembrines in the outer leaves of the bud growth structures and the inherent photochemical UV quenching properties of the mesembrine alkaloids themselves. The high irradiance and incident UV light, inherent to the natural habitats of these plants, would render such a functionality of these compounds an evolutionary advantage. Additionally, in wild type plants an upregulation of betalain pigments and key mesembrine alkaloids over the year, reaching a maximum in summer, was observed. These betalain pigments, made up of the red to maroon betacyanins and yellow betaxanthins groups, occur exclusively in Caryophyllaceae order plants, to which S. tortuosum belongs. As aromatic ring chromophores, these pigments, besides antioxidant and osmotic protectant properties, also possess inherent absorption maxima in both the UV, and visible region, and are functional analogues of the more ubiquitous anthocyanins, with which they share similar photochemical properties. It was interesting to realise, that the nitrogenous mesembrines and betalains share a common primary metabolism pathway precursor, the amino acid tyrosine. While speculative, an interaction of these two metabolite pathways is hypothesised, and may hold clues as to their respective co-evolution, and in planta role, in plants such as S. tortuosum, and the Caryophyllaceae order at large. The second branch of the study examined mesembrine alkaloid accumulation patterns from a tissue developmental perspective. A spatiotemporal study of the chemotypic variation in developing leaves of tunnel grown plants, charted the accumulation of the mesembrine alkaloids to specific leaf age, developmental stages. Mesembrine (5156.7 ±1276.5) mg/kg DW was associated with actively growing leaves, whereas �⁴-mesembrenone (255.9 ±301.15) mg/kg DW, mesembranol (551.52 ±56.4) mg/kg DW and 6-epimesembranol (612.4 ±64.7) mg/kg DW were present at highest levels with the onset and progression of senescent aging of leaves. This new information linked to improved understanding of the developmental and spatial accumulation of these alkaloids will inform biosynthetic pathway investigations and pave the way to defining the possible ecological and/or biological significance of these accumulation patterns. In conclusion, the final branch of the study sought to rapidly and sustainably meet the immediate and future demand for the high value phytochemicals of S. tortuosum, through the development of a suitable in vitro, high throughput, metabolite production technology. Increased scientific and mainstream reports and growing public awareness of the psychoactive properties of S. tortuosum, has exposed wild populations to an increased threat of unscrupulous harvesting. By establishing a biotechnological platform for future production of these compounds, it was envisaged that the current pressure on wild populations could be assuaged. Using in vitro microshoot cultures, a two-phase regimen employing a tissue dehydration pre-treatment step, prior to metabolite extraction, produced commercially exploitable levels of mesembrine (3270.9 ±981.5) mg/kg DW, mesembrenol (333.1 ±36.1) mg/kg DW, mesembranol (4738.8 ±172.9) mg/kg DW and �⁴-mesembrenone (29.9 ±0.5) mg/kg DW in tissue extracts. Additionally, select liquid callus culture lines, once established, accumulated mesembranol (64.6 ±8.5) mg/kg DW as the maJor alkaloid component, and exhibited a retained significant biosynthetic capacity for mesembrine, mesembranol, mesembrenol and �⁴-mesembrenone. These in vitro platforms present a potentially scalable, high throughput alternative, to access mesembrine alkaloids for the various phytopharmaceutical industries. Additionally, the clonal tissue uniformity and exogenous growth parameter control inherent to such technologies have not been previously accessible for this plant and will greatly benefit advances in metabolic pathway and molecular biology investigations. As various key mesembrines are poised to become more prominent in the phytopharmaceutical arena, South Africa, as the home of the Sceletium plant, holds a unique position of responsibility in the global marketplace. The research presented here, on both the seasonal and spatiotemporal chemotype development in this plant, begins to answer for the first-time fundamental question of inherent biological timing and context of mesembrine alkaloid signatures necessary to optimise their harvesting. Sceletium has shared a long history of use within the San culture, and as the industry surrounding this plant grows in this country, and globally, we should remain cognisant of fairness, and of the original knowledge keepers' stake. The production of mesembrine alkaloids using biotechnology as a system, provides a novel manufacturing platform for this species that has the potential to become highly desired in the industry. As the lucrative healing potential of Sceletium unfolds, communities with San heritage are in an opportune position to benefit from their intellectual property and its availability to the world at large, through the commercialisation linked to this work.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Suid-Afrikaanse inheemse, medisinale vetplant Sceletium tortuosum (L.) N.E. Br., het die wereld se vehoog betree, te midde van toenemende bewyse van die plant se stel mesembrien alkaloYede as toepassings op angswerendheid en menslike gesondheid. Kliniese proewe, het bewys dat etnofarmaseutiese wat gekoppel is met hul bio-aktiwiteite, die aanvraag van hierdie metaboliete verseker. Samelopend met hierdie globale marksgeleentheid, is die vereiste om die bestaande hortologiese produksiestelsels te optimiseer, en ook die parallelle ontwikkeling van alternatiewe, hoe-getrouheid, fitofarmaseutiese produksie-platforms, om hierdie mark-aanvraag te bevredig. Om dit te kan verrig, word meer insig benodig omtrent die fundamentele interne en eksterne faktore wat die kenmerkende mesembrien alkoloYedes in planta bepaal. Die bepalende logika wat hierdie navorsing dryf, was om die agterstand van kennis aangaande die in planta biosintese van mesembrien alkoloYedes, aan te vul. Met behulp van ultra-hoe-werkverrigting-vloeistof chromotografie massa spektometrie (UHWVC-MS) se resolusiekrag om te kwantifiseer; en veelvuldig-veranderlike hoofkomponent analiese (HKA) om te visualiseer, was 'n kwantitatiewe en kwalitatiese ondersoek van die faktore wat kenmerkende chemotipes in lewende weefsels bepaal, te onderneem. Eerstens, was 'n globale oorsig bepaal van die seisonale tendense van verskillende mesembrien alkoloYedes. Chemotipiese profiel van 'n enkele, beperkte reeks, natuurlike populasie was tydens 4 seisoene van een jaar getoets. Die korrelasie van hierdie profile met die fisiologiese groei- parameters van die plant, het die gepaardgaande mesembrien-uitdrukkingspatrone van die groei- fase, aan die lig gebring. Tydens die somer, het die hoof alkoloYedes, mesembrien (4.01 ±5.62) mg/kg DM, mesembrenol (2.49 ±2.85) mg/kg en mesembranol (52.79 ±51.29) mg/kg DM en die isomere 6-epimesembrenol (2.10 ±2.19) mg/kg DM en 6-epimesembranol (1.45 ±1.41) mg/kg DM, maksimale weefsel akkumulasie vertoon. Hierdie seisoen van uiters hoe temperature en water tekort, het met die beperkte groei van die plant, ooreengestem. In teenstelling daarmee, het die laagste akkumulasies gedurende die herfs en winter plaasgevind, dit is onderskeidelik waartydens plante groei onderskeidelik ge-inisieer en ge-aktiveer word. In hierdie eerste verslag oor die seisonale akkumulasie-patrone van mesembrien alkoloYedes van S. tortuosum, word die grondrede van die tradisionele gewoonte om hierdie plante in somer te oes, vir die eerste keer beaam en verduidelik. Daar was beduidende, seisoenale alkoloYed-spesifieke verskille in akkumulasie gevind, maar egter ook groot, binne-seisoen variasie. Daar word voorgestel dat hierdie variasie, deur groot, oorgeerfde, intra-populasie chemiese heterogeniteit tussen individue, onderstut word. Daar word ook aangeneem, gebasseer op hierdie waarnemings, dat addisionele beduidende faktore, behalwe seisoenaliteit, bepalend in die vorming van chemotipiese wisselvalligheid van natuurlike groeiende materiaal is. Hierdie voorgestelde moontlikheid van die indusering van alkoredes, moet nog verder ondersoek word. Daar word ook 'n potensiele ligbeskermingsrol van die mesembrien alkoloredes, voorgestel. Hierdie mening is gegrond op die hoe, relatiewe aantal sleutel-mesembrienes wat in die somer aangeteken word, die ruimtelike akkumulasie van spesifieke mesembrienes in die dekblare van die botselgroei strukture, en die inherente fotochemiese UV-versadigingseinskappe van die mesembrien alkoloredes hulself. Gegewe die hoe ligbestraling en invallende UV lig, inherent tot die natuurlike habitatte van hierdie plant, kan die tipe funksies van hierdie verbindings, as 'n evolusionere voordeel aangeslaan het. Boonop in natuurlike plante, is daar 'n fassinerende mede-opregulasie van betalaren pigmente en sleutel mesembrien alkoloredes, oor die tydperk van 'n jaar opgemerk, wat maksimale akkumilasie tydens die somer bereik. Hierdie betalaren pigmente, wat bestaan uit die rooi tot maroen betasianiene, en geel betaxantiene groepe, kom eksklusief in die orde van Caryophyllaceae plante voor, waaraan S. tortuosum ook behoort. As aromatiese ring chromofore, het hierdie pigmente ook inherente absorpsie-maksimas in beide die UV, en die sigbare ligstreek, en is funksioneel analogies tot die meer alomteenwoordige antosianiene, met wie hulle soortgelyke fotochemiese eienskappe deel. Dit was dus prikkelend om te besef, dat die stikstof-gebasseerde mesembriene en betalarene, 'n algemene primere metabolieseroete voorlooper, die aminosuur tiroseen, deel. Alhoewel dit bespiegelend is, word 'n interaksie tussen hierdie twee metaboliese roetes gehipotetiseer, en mag dit ook leidrade gee tot hul onderskeidelike mede-evolusie en hul in planta rol in plante soos S. tortuosum en die breer orde van die Caryophyllaceae. Die tweede vertakking van hierdie studie, ondersoek die mesembrien alkolorede akkumulasie- patrone vanuit 'n ontwikkelingsperspektief. 'n Ruimtelike-temporale studie van die chemotipiese variasie in die ontwikkeling van blare van plante, wat in tonnels gekweek is, karteer die akkumulasie van sleutel mesembrien alkoloredes tot spesifieke blaar ouderdomme en ontwikkeling stadiums. Mesembrien (5156.7 ±1276.5) mg/kg DM was geassosieerd met aktief-groeiende blare, terwyl 11⁴-mesembrenone (255.9 ±301.15) mg/kg DM, mesembranol (551.52 ±56.4) mg/kg DM en 6-epimesembranol (612.4 ±64.7) mg/kg DM teenwoordig was op die hoogste vlakke met die aanvang en vordering van afsnyding van verouderde blare. Hierdie nuwe inligting, gekoppel aan die begrip van ontwikkels- en ruimtelike akkumulasie van hierdie alkoloredes, sal die verdere ondersoeke na die biosintetiese roetes verwittig en die weg baan om die moontlike ekologiese en biologiese waarde van hierdie akkumulasie patrone, te definieer. Ter opsomming, die finale vertakking van hierdie studie het gepoog om die toekomstige aanvraag van hierdie hoe-waarde fito-chemikaliee van S. tortuosum, vining en volhoubaar te bevredig, deur middel van die ontwikkeling van gepaste in vitro, hoe-deurvloei metabolietvervaardigingstegnologie. Verhoogte wetenskaplike en hoofstroom verslae, asook toenemende publieke bewustheid van die psigo-aktiewe eienskappe van S. tortuosum, het die natuurlike populasies aan verhoogte druk van gewetenlose oeste, blootgestel. Deur 'n biotegnologiese platform te stig, vir die toekomstige produksie van hierdie verbindings, was daar verwag dat die huidige druk op die natuurlike populasies, verlig kon word. Met behulp van in vitro mikro-spruit kulture, 'n twee-fase reel met 'n weefsel-ontwatering voor-behandelingsstap, voor die ektraksie van metaboliete, was kommersieel-benutbare vlakke van mesembrien (3270.9 ±981.5) mg/kg DM, mesembrenol (333.1 ±36.1) mg/kg DM, mesembranol (4738.8 ±172.9) mg/kg DM en �⁴-mesembrenone (29.9 ±0.5) mg/kg DM in weefsel ekstrakte, geproduseer. Bykomend daarmee, het gesellekteerde vloeistof kallus-kultuur lyne, nadat hulle gevestig was, mesembranol (64.6 ±8.5) mg/kg DM as die hoof alkoloi"ede komponent geproduseer, en het 'n beduidende biosintetiese kapasiteit vir mesembrien, mesembranol, mesembrenol and �⁴-mesembrenoon, gehandhaaf. Hierdie in vitro platforms verteenwoordig 'n potensiale bestygbare, hoe-deurvloei alternatief, om mesembrien alkoloi"edes te assesseer vir die verskeie fitofarmaseutiese industriee. Verder was die klonale weefsel se uniformiteit en die eksogene groei beheerparameters, wat gekoppel is met hierdie tegnologiee, nog nie voorheen toeganglik vir hierdie plant nie, en sal dus grootliks vordering in studies op metaboliese roetes en molekulere biologie baat. Soos verskeie sleutel mesembriene gespits is, om meer promiment te word in die fitofarmaseutiese arena, hou Suid-Afrika as tuiste van die Sceletium plant, 'n unieke posisie van verantwoordelikheid in hierdie globale mark. Die navorsing wat hier bekend gemaak word, op beide die seisonale en ruimtelike-temporale chemotiepe ontwikkeling van die plant, begin vir die eerste keer die fundamentele vraag te beantwoord, van inherente biologiese tydstelling en die konteks van mesembrien alkoloi"ede kenmerke, wat benodig word om oeste te optimatiseer. Sceletium het 'n lang geskiedenis van benutting in die San kultuur, en soos die industrie rondom hierdie plant groei in hierdie land, asook wereldwyd, moet ons bewus bly van die regverdigheid, en die oorspronklike kennisdraers se aandeel hierin. Die produksie van alkoloi"edes met behulp van biotegnologie as 'n stelsel, verskaf 'n nuwe vervaardigingsplatform vir hierdie species, wat die potensiaal het om hoogs gesogt te word in die industrie. Soos die winsgewende geneesingspotensiaal van Sceletium ontvou, is gemeenskappe met San-erfenis in 'n gunstige posisie om voordeel te trek uit hulle intellektuele eiendom en die beskikbaarheid daarvan vir die wereld, deur die kommersialiseering wat gekoppel is aan hierdie werk.
Description
Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2021.
Keywords
Sceletium tortuosum (L.) -- South Africa -- Identification, Mesembrine -- Effect of light on, Alkaloids -- Inhibitors, Metabolomics, Sceletium tortuosum (L.) -- Medicinal use, Alkaloid biosynthesis, Sceletium tortuosum (L.) -- Effect of light on, UCTD
Citation