Carbon characteristics and the effect of terrain and cultivation on topsoil carbon and salts of the West Coast heuweltjies

Date
2023-03
Journal Title
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Publisher
Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University
Abstract
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The 21ˢᵗ century has been marked by global increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations from annual emissions from land-use conversion and soil cultivation. In addition, the issue of increased salinization of soils is another problem that poses a threat to agricultural production and environmental health. Large (>20 m diameter) regularly spaced earthen mounds called “heuweltjies” (Afrikaans for “little hills”) occur widely in the West Coast region of South Africa with heights between 1 to 2.5 m. These mounds are characterised by significantly higher carbon and salt contents compared to surrounding soils. Therefore, this study was conducted to determine the total carbon characteristics and the effect of terrain and cultivation on topsoil carbon and salts of the West Coast heuweltjies. Firstly, the total carbon characteristics of three previously excavated heuweltjies in three differing rainfall environments in the Buffels river (mean annual rainfall <100 mm/year), Klawer (mean annual rainfall between 100-200 mm/year) and Piketberg (mean annual rainfall between 300- 400 mm/year), were investigated. The analyses focused on soil bulk density, total carbon (total C), and soil organic carbon (SOC) content as well as carbon stocks. Both rainfall and termite foraging activities affected the horizontal and vertical distribution of carbon in all three areas. The vertical distribution of SOC to soil inorganic carbon (SIC) were inversely related, with SOC higher in the upper horizons and SIC increasing with depth. The influence of termite foraging activities on the depth distribution of SOC was observed in the subsoils of the heuweltjies, which was unlike the usual exponential decrease in SOC with depth in a normal soil profile. The subsoils showed localised elevated contents of SOC with depth, attributed to translocation of organic debris by termites and burrowing animals in the mounds. This signified the importance of subsoil studies in accounting for C stocks in termite affected landscapes. Further, the contribution of heuweltjies to total C and SOC stocks was calculated based on the area-weighted land coverage of the mound and inter-mound soils of the Klawer heuweltjie. The amount of total C stored was found to be 14.6 Mg C per mound and SOC was estimated to be 1.1 Mg C per mound. Thus, for the Klawer region, the total carbon stored per hectare is 102 Mg and 7.5 Mg of SOC, suggesting heuweltjies are an important store of atmospheric carbon in global carbon sequestration processes. Secondly, the effects of cultivation on topsoil pH, salinity and carbon were investigated across two rainfall zones in Trawal (mean annual rainfall between 50-200 mm/year) and Koringberg (mean annual rainfall between 300-400 mm/year). The analyses focused on pH, EC, and carbon content in the top 0-10 cm and 0-20 cm at the two study sites, respectively. Adjacent heuweltjies in cultivated and uncultivated land were selected for comparisons. Generally, differences occurred between land use and sampling position. Cultivation practices resulted in an increase in pH of the inter-mound soils by approximately 1.3 units in comparison to the inter-mound soils of uncultivated land. The impact of cultivation on salinity did not provide enough evidence to suggest a lateral distribution of salts within the landscape. The salts were generally higher on than off the mound soils at both study sites, a result consistent in this study. The study also showed that carbon content was negatively affected by cultivation, resulting in approximately 50% loss of total C, SOC, and C stocks in cultivated land. In addition, a lateral uniform distribution of carbon was observed on and off the heuweltjies in cultivated land, suggesting a reduction in termite driven SOM inputs in the mound soils. The carbon stocks in uncultivated soils were found to be generally higher on than off the mounds following the order moderate to low rainfall site. Finally, the effect of terrain on salt load, salt type and distribution of carbon content on and off the heuweltjies across a cultivated hillslope was investigated. The results for the spatial distribution of carbon on and off the heuweltjies showed an inconsistent trend of either higher or lower carbon content with distance downslope. This unclear pattern did not provide enough evidence to support the hypothesis of a reduction in the carbon content on the mounds from crest to footslope. The spatial distribution of salts showed a trend of higher salts on mounds in comparison to inter-mound soils reaffirming earlier results suggesting that cultivation does not have a major influence on salt movement across the landscape. This trend did not support lateral movement of salts downslope. Furthermore, based on the comparison of the heuweltjie salt signature to that of the seawater dilution line, and despite many decades of cultivation and reduced termite activity, the heuweltjies still maintained a marine signature, adding more evidence to the hypothesis suggesting that the salts are derived from marine deposited aerosols. Concentrated hotspots of ions and minerals within the biogenic features of mound soils suggested that burrowing fauna are responsible for accumulating marine-derived salts in heuweltjie soils. The results of this study, based on the difference in SOC concentrations of the heuweltjies in cultivated and uncultivated land, have shown that heuweltjies are an important store of carbon, which when cultivated become a source of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). In addition, the results presented are relevant for land-use change and management strategies that promote carbon storage in drylands. Also, the results showed that tillage has no major influence on salt distribution across the landscape, or that shallow lateral flow is an important contributor to dryland salinity.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die 21ste eeu is gekenmerk deur wêreldwye toenames in atmosferiese koolstof dioksied konsentrasies as gevolg van jaarlikse emissies van grondgebruik omskakeling en grondbewerking. Daarby word die kwessie van verhoogde versouting van gronde nog 'n probleem wat 'n bedreiging vir landbouproduksie en omgewings gesondheid inhou. Groot (>20 m deursnee) gereeld gespasieerde erdeheuwels genoem “heuweltjies” kom wyd voor in die Weskusstreek van Suid-Afrika met hoogtes tussen 1 en 2,5 m. Hierdie heuwels word gekenmerk deur aansienlik hoër koolstof- en soutinhoude in vergelyking met omliggende gronde. Daarom is hierdie studie uitgevoer om die totale koolstofkenmerke en die effek van terrein en bewerking op bogrondkoolstof en soute van die Weskus-heuweltjies te bepaal. Eerstens, die totale koolstof kenmerke van drie voorheen uitgegrawe heuweltjies in drie verskillende reënval omgewings in die Buffelsrivier (gemiddelde jaarlikse reënval <100 mm/jaar), Klawer (gemiddelde jaarlikse reënval tussen 100-200 mm/jaar) en Piketberg (gemiddelde jaarlikse reënval tussen 300-400 mm/jaar), is ondersoek. Die ontledings het gefokus op grond massadigtheid, totale koolstof (totale C), en grond organiese koolstof (SOC) inhoud sowel as koolstof voorrade. Reënval en termiet-vreet aktiwiteite het die horisontale en vertikale verspreiding van koolstof in al drie gebiede beïnvloed. Die vertikale verspreiding van SOC na grond anorganiese koolstof (SIC) was omgekeerd verwant, met SOC hoër in die boonste horisonne en SIC wat met diepte toegeneem het. Die invloed van termiet-vreet aktiwiteite op die diepte verspreiding van SOC is in die ondergrond van die heuweltjies waargeneem, wat anders as die gewone eksponensiële afname in SOC met diepte in 'n normale grond profiel was. Die ondergrond het gelokaliseerde verhoogde inhoud van SOC met diepte getoon, toegeskryf aan translokasie van organiese puin deur termiete en grawende diere in die heuwels. Dit dui aan op die belangrikheid van ondergrond studies se verantwoordbaarheid vir C-voorrade in termiet-geaffekteerde landskappe. Verder is die bydrae van heuweltjies tot totale C- en SOC-voorrade bereken op grond van die oppervlakte-geweegde grondbedekking van die heuwel - en tussen heuwel gronde van die Klawer heuweltjie. Daar is gevind dat die hoeveelheid totale C gestoor is 14.6 Mg C per hoop en SOC is geskat op 1.1 Mg C per heuwel. Dus, vir die Klawer-streek is die totale koolstof wat per hektaar gestoor word 102 Mg en 7.5 Mg SOC, wat daarop dui dat heuweltjies 'n belangrike stoor van atmosferiese koolstof in globale koolstof sekwestrasie prosesses. Tweedens, is die effekte van bewerking op bogrond se pH, soutgehalte en koolstof oor twee reënval sone in Trawal (gemiddelde jaarlikse reënval tussen 50-200 mm/jaar) en Koringberg (gemiddelde jaarlikse reënval tussen 300-400 mm/jaar) ondersoek. Die ontledings het gefokus op pH, EC en koolstofinhoud in onderskeidelik die boonste 0-10 cm en 0-20 cm by die twee studieterreine. Aangrensende heuweltjies in bewerkte en onbewerkte grond is vir vergelykings geselekteer. Oor die algemeen het verskille tussen grondgebruik en steekproef posisie voorgekom. Verbouings praktyke het gelei tot 'n verhoging in pH van die tussen heuwelgronde met ongeveer 1.3 eenhede in vergelyking met die tussen heuwelgronde van onbewerkte grond. Die impak van bewerking op soutgehalte het nie genoeg bewyse verskaf om 'n laterale verspreiding van soute binne die landskap voor te stel nie. Die soute was oor die algemeen hoër op as van die heuwel gronde by albei studieterreine, 'n resultaat konsekwent in hierdie studie. Die studie het ook getoon dat koolstofinhoud negatief deur bewerking beïnvloed is, wat gelei het tot ongeveer 50% verlies van totale C, SOC en C-voorrade in bewerkte grond. Daarby is 'n laterale eenvormige verspreiding van koolstof op en van die heuweltjies in bewerkte grond waargeneem, wat 'n vermindering in termiet gedrewe SOM-insette in die heuwel gronde voorstel. Daar is gevind dat die koolstof voorraad in onbewerkte gronde oor die algemeen hoër is op as van die heuwels na die orde van matige tot lae reënval. Laastens, is die effek van terrein op sout lading, sout tipe en verspreiding van koolstofinhoud op en van die heuweltjies oor 'n bewerkte heuwelhang ondersoek. Die resultate vir die ruimtelike verspreiding van koolstof op en van die heuweltjies het 'n inkonsekwente neiging van óf hoër óf laer koolstofinhoud met afstand afdraande getoon. Hierdie onduidelike patroon het nie genoeg bewyse verskaf om die hipotese van 'n vermindering in die koolstofinhoud op die heuwels van kruin tot voet helling te ondersteun nie. Die ruimtelike verspreiding van soute het 'n neiging getoon van hoër soute op heuwels in vergelyking met grond tussen heuwels wat vroeër resultate bevestig wat daarop dui dat bewerking nie 'n groot invloed op sout beweging oor die landskap het nie. Hierdie tendens het nie laterale beweging van soute afdraand ondersteun nie. Verder, gebaseer op die vergelyking van die heuweltjie-sout-handtekening met dié van die seewater verdunnings lyn, en ten spyte van baie dekades van verbouing en verminderde termiet aktiwiteit, het die heuweltjies steeds 'n mariene handtekening behou, wat meer bewyse by die hipotese voeg wat daarop dui dat die soute afgelei is van mariene gedeponeerde aërosols. Gekonsentreerde brandpunte van ione en minerale binne die biogene kenmerke van heuwel gronde het voorgestel dat grawende fauna verantwoordelik is vir die ophoping van soute wat afkomstig is van die see in heuweltjie gronde. Die resultate van hierdie studie, gebaseer op die massa balans verskil tussen heuweltjies in bewerkte en onbewerkte gebiede, het getoon dat heuweltjies 'n belangrike stoor van koolstof is, wat wanneer dit gekweek word 'n bron van atmosferiese koolstofdioksied (CO2) word. Daarby is die resultate wat aangebied word relevant vir grondgebruik verandering en bestuur strategieë wat koolstof berging in droëlande bevorder. Die resultate het ook getoon dat bewerking geen groot invloed op sout verspreiding oor die landskap het nie, of dat vlak laterale vloei 'n belangrike bydraer tot droëland soutgehalte is.
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Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 2023.
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