Circadian rhythms as novel chemotherapeutic strategies for breast cancer
Date
2014-12
Authors
Mitchell, Megan Irvette
Journal Title
Journal ISSN
Volume Title
Publisher
Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University
Abstract
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Introduction: Mammalian circadian rhythms form an integral physiological system allowing for the synchronisation of all metabolic processes to daily light/dark cycles, thereby optimising their efficacy. Circadian disruptions have been implicated in the onset and progression of different types of cancers, including those arising in the breast. Several links between the circadian protein Per2 and DNA damage responses exist. Aberrant Per2 expression results in potent downstream effects to both cell cycle and apoptotic targets, suggestive of a tumour suppressive role for Per2. Due to the severe dose limiting side effects associated with current chemotherapeutic strategies, including the use of doxorubicin, a need for more effective adjuvant therapies to increase cancer cell susceptibility has arisen. We therefore hypothesize, that the manipulation of the circadian Per2 protein in conjunction with doxorubicin may provide a more effective chemotherapeutic strategy for the treatment of breast cancer. The aims of this project were thus to: (i) Characterize the role of Per2 in normal breast epithelial cells as well as in ER+ and ER- breast cancer cells; (ii) to determine the role of Per2 in doxorubicin-induced cell death, (iii) to determine the role of Per2 in autophagy and finally (iv) to assess whether the pharmacological inhibition of Per2 with metformin, can sensitize chemo-resistant MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells to doxorubicin-induced cell death. Methods: An in vitro model of breast cancer was employed using the normal MCF-12A breast epithelial, estrogen receptor positive (ER+) MCF-7 and estrogen receptor negative (ER-) MDA-MB-231 breast adenocarcinoma cell lines. Circadian rhythmicity of Per2 protein expression was determined using western blotting, and Per2 cellular localization was assessed using fluorescent confocal microscopy. Per2 was then silenced by means of an endoribonuclease-prepared siRNA, and silencing efficiency was determined with the use of western blotting. The roles of Per2 in doxorubicin-induced cell death and autophagy were assessed by treating MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells under the following conditions (1) Control, (2) 2.5 μM doxorubicin or 10 nM bafilomycin A1 (3) 30 nM esiPer2 and (4) 30 nM esiPer2 in combination with 2.5 μM doxorubicin or 10 nM bafilomycin A1. Following treatments cell viability was assessed using the MTT assay, western blotting for markers of apoptosis including p-MDM2 (Ser166), p-p53 (Ser15), cleaved caspase-3 and –PARP as well as markers of autophagy (AMPKα, mTOR and LC3). Furthermore, cell cycle analysis, G2/M transition and cell death (Hoechst 33342 and propidium iodide staining) were assessed by means of flow cytometry. The pharmacological inhibition of Per2 was achieved by treating MDA-MB-231 cells with 40 mM metformin as well as in combination with 2.5 μM doxorubicin. MTT cell viability assays, cell cycle analysis (flow cytometry) and western blotting for apoptosis (Per2, p-AMPKα (Thr172), p53, caspase-3 and PARP) were assessed. Results and discussion: A circadian pattern of Per2 protein expression was observed in the normal MCF-12A and MDA-MB-231 cancer cells with protein levels peaking at ±700% and ±500% of baseline was observed. However, no rhythmic expression was observed in the MCF-7 cancer cells. Immunostaining for Per2 showed localization OF Per2 in the cytoplasm as well as in the nucleus of both the MCF-12A and MDA-MB-231 cells. Concentration curves showed a significant reduction in cell viability following 2.5 μM doxorubicin treatment for 24 hours. Per2 protein expression was significantly reduced with both esiPer2 and metformin treatment. Silencing of Per2 in combination with doxorubicin treatment resulted in cell cycle arrest with a significant increase in apoptosis, indicating that Per2 silencing effectively sensitized the MDA-MB-231 cancer cells to the anti-carcinogenic properties of doxorubicin. Modulation of Per2 protein expression was effectively achieved with the use metformin although this decrease occurred independently of AMPKα phosphorylation. A significant increase in apoptosis was observed following treatment with metformin in combination with doxorubicin treatment. However, no changes in cell cycle regulation were observed. Per2 appears to be involved in the regulation of autophagy as a significant increase in autophagy flux was observed when Per2 was silenced. Additionally, this increase in autophagic flux resulted in a significant increase in MDA-MB-231 cancer cell death which was enhanced further when autophagy was inhibited with bafilomycin A1 subsequent to Per2 silencing.
Conclusions: Per2 protein expression was shown to display a 24 hour circadian rhythm in the MCF-12A cells, and to a lesser extent in the MDA-MB-231 cells. However, the MCF-7 cells failed to show rhythmic changes in Per2 protein expression. Per2 was shown to be located predominantly in the cytoplasm, with nuclear localization observed when cytoplasmic fluorescent intensity was lower. Per2 silencing effectively sensitized the chemo-resistant MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells to both doxorubicin-induced cell death and autophagic inhibition.
AFRIKKANSE OPSOMMING: Inleiding: Sirkadiese ritmes vorm ‘n integrale fisiologiese sisteem wat die sinkronisasie van alle metaboliese prosesse asook lig/donker siklusse se effektiwiteit optimaliseer. Onderbreking van hierdie sirkadiese ritmes word geïmpliseer in die ontstaan en bevordering van verskillende kankertipes, insluitend borskanker. Verskeie raakpunte bestaan tussen die sirkadiese proteïen, Per2, en die DNA skade-respons. Abnormale Per2 uitdrukking veroorsaak afstroom effekte op beide die selsiklus en apoptotiese teikens wat moontlik aanduidend van ‘n tumor-onderdrukkende rol vir Per2 kan wees. Daar bestaan ‘n groot nood vir meer effektiewe adjuvante terapieë om kankersel vatbaarheid vir chemoterapie te verhoog as gevolg van dosis-beperkende newe-effekte wat geassosieer word met huidige chemoterapeutiese strategieë, insluitende dié van doxorubicin. Ons hipotese is dus dat die manipulering van die sirkadiese Per2 proteïen tesame met doxorubicin ‘n meer effektiewe chemoterapeutiese strategie vir die behandeling van borskanker sal wees. Die doelwitte van hierdie projek was dus om: (i) Die rol van Per2 in normale borsepiteelselle sowel as in ER+ en ER- borsepiteel kankerselle te karakteriseer; (ii) die rol van Per2 in doxorubicin-geïnduseerde seldood te bepaal; (iii) te bepaal of Per2 ‘n rol in autofagie speel en laastens (iv) te bepaal of die farmakologiese inhibisie van Per2 met metformin chemo-weerstandbiedende MDA-MB-231 kankerselle kan sensitiseer vir doxorubicin-geïnduseerde seldood. Metodes: ‘n In vitro model vir borskanker is gebruik wat normale MCF-12A borsepiteelselle, estrogeen reseptor positiewe (ER+) MCF-7 en estrogeen reseptor negatiewe (ER-) MDA-MB-231 bors adenokarsenoomselle insluit. Sirkadiese ritmisiteit van Per2 proteïen uitdrukking is deur middel van die westelike kladtegniek bepaal en die sellulêre ligging van Per2 deur middel van fluoresensie mikroskopie. siPer2 is voorberei deur middel van endoribonuklease-siRNA en die effektiwiteit daarvan is deur middel van westelike kladtegniek getoon. Die rol van Per2 in doxorubicin-geinduseerde seldood en autofagie is bepaal deur MDA-MB-231 borskankerselle onder die volgende omstandighede te toets: (1) Kontrole, (2) 2.5 μM doxorubicin of 10 nM bafilomycin A1 (3) 30 nM esiPer2 en (4) 30 nM esiPer2 in kombinasie met 2.5 μM doxorubicin of 10 nM bafilomycin A1. Na die behandeling, is sellewensvatbaarheid bepaal deur gebruik te maak van ‘n MTT toets; westelike kladtegniek is gebruik om vir merkers van apoptose soos p-MDM2 (Ser166), p-p53 (Ser15), gekliefde caspase-3 en -PARP asook vir merkers van autofagie (AMPKα, mTOR en LC3) te toets. Die selsiklus, G2/M oorgang en seldood (Hoechst 33342 en propidium iodide kleuring) is deur middel van vloeisitometrie bepaal. Per2 is ook farmakologies geïnhibeer deur MDA-MB-231 selle met 40 mM metformin asook in kombinasie met 2.5 μM doxorubicin te behandel. Daarna is sellewensvatbaarheid (MTT) sowel as die selsiklus (vloeisitometrie) en apoptose (westelike kladtegniek vir Per2, p-AMPKα (Thr172), p53, caspase-3 and PARP) gemeet. Resultate en bespreking: ‘n Sirkadiese patroon vir Per2 proteïen uitdrukking is in die normale MCF-12A selle asook in die MDA-MB-231 kankerselle waargeneem met proteïenvlakke wat hul piek by ±700% and ±500% onderskeidelik in vergelyking met basislyn bereik het. Geen ritmiese patroon van Per2 proteïen uitdrukking is egter in die MCF-7 kankerselle waargeneem nie. Immunokleuring om Per2 ligging te bepaal het getoon dat Per2 in the sitoplasma sowel as in die nukleus in beide MCF-12A en MDA-MB-231 selle voorgekom het. Konsentrasie kurwes het aangetoon dat daar ‘n insiggewende vermindering in sellewensvatbaarheid voorgekom het na die behandeling van die selle met 2.5 μM doxorubicin vir 24 uur. Per2 proteïen uitdrukking is insiggewend verlaag met beide esiPer2 en metformin behandeling van die selle. esiPer2 aleen of in kombinasie met doxorubicin behandeling het selsiklus staking tot gevolg gehad asook ‘n beduidende toename in apoptose veroorsaak wat dus aangedui het dat esiPer2 effektief was om MDA-MB-231 kankerselle te sensitiseer vir die anti-karsinogeniese doxorubicin behandeling. Modulering van Per2 proteïen uitdrukking was effektief met metformin behandeling, alhoewel die afname onafhanklik van AMPKα fosforilasie plaasgevind het. ‘n Insiggewende toename in apoptose is waargeneem na metformin behandeling in kombinasie met doxorubicin. Geen veranderinge in die selsiklus is egter onder hierdie omstandighede waargeneem nie. Per2 blyk betrokke te wees in die regulering van autofagie aangesien ‘n insiggewende verhoging in autofagie omsetting waargeneem is na esiPer2 behandeling. Die toename in autofagie omsetting is geassosieer met ‘n insiggewende toename in seldood in MDA-MB-231 kankerselle wat verder verhoog is wanneer autofagie met bafilomycin A1 (autofagie inhibitor) in kombinasie met esiPer2 behandel is. Gevolgtrekkings: Per2 proteïen uitdrukking het ‘n 24 uur sirkadiese ritme in die MCF-12A normale selle, en tot ‘n mindere mate in die MDA-MB-231 selle getoon. Die MCF-7 selle het egter geen ritmiese patroon van Per2 proteïen uitdrukking getoon nie. Per2 kom hoofsaaklik in die sitoplasma voor en het slegs in die nukleus voorgekom wanneer die sitoplasmiese fluoresensie intensiteit laer was. esiPer2 was dus effektief om die chemo-weerstandbiedende MDA-MB-231 borskankerselle te sensitiseer vir doxorubicin-geïnduseerde seldood.
AFRIKKANSE OPSOMMING: Inleiding: Sirkadiese ritmes vorm ‘n integrale fisiologiese sisteem wat die sinkronisasie van alle metaboliese prosesse asook lig/donker siklusse se effektiwiteit optimaliseer. Onderbreking van hierdie sirkadiese ritmes word geïmpliseer in die ontstaan en bevordering van verskillende kankertipes, insluitend borskanker. Verskeie raakpunte bestaan tussen die sirkadiese proteïen, Per2, en die DNA skade-respons. Abnormale Per2 uitdrukking veroorsaak afstroom effekte op beide die selsiklus en apoptotiese teikens wat moontlik aanduidend van ‘n tumor-onderdrukkende rol vir Per2 kan wees. Daar bestaan ‘n groot nood vir meer effektiewe adjuvante terapieë om kankersel vatbaarheid vir chemoterapie te verhoog as gevolg van dosis-beperkende newe-effekte wat geassosieer word met huidige chemoterapeutiese strategieë, insluitende dié van doxorubicin. Ons hipotese is dus dat die manipulering van die sirkadiese Per2 proteïen tesame met doxorubicin ‘n meer effektiewe chemoterapeutiese strategie vir die behandeling van borskanker sal wees. Die doelwitte van hierdie projek was dus om: (i) Die rol van Per2 in normale borsepiteelselle sowel as in ER+ en ER- borsepiteel kankerselle te karakteriseer; (ii) die rol van Per2 in doxorubicin-geïnduseerde seldood te bepaal; (iii) te bepaal of Per2 ‘n rol in autofagie speel en laastens (iv) te bepaal of die farmakologiese inhibisie van Per2 met metformin chemo-weerstandbiedende MDA-MB-231 kankerselle kan sensitiseer vir doxorubicin-geïnduseerde seldood. Metodes: ‘n In vitro model vir borskanker is gebruik wat normale MCF-12A borsepiteelselle, estrogeen reseptor positiewe (ER+) MCF-7 en estrogeen reseptor negatiewe (ER-) MDA-MB-231 bors adenokarsenoomselle insluit. Sirkadiese ritmisiteit van Per2 proteïen uitdrukking is deur middel van die westelike kladtegniek bepaal en die sellulêre ligging van Per2 deur middel van fluoresensie mikroskopie. siPer2 is voorberei deur middel van endoribonuklease-siRNA en die effektiwiteit daarvan is deur middel van westelike kladtegniek getoon. Die rol van Per2 in doxorubicin-geinduseerde seldood en autofagie is bepaal deur MDA-MB-231 borskankerselle onder die volgende omstandighede te toets: (1) Kontrole, (2) 2.5 μM doxorubicin of 10 nM bafilomycin A1 (3) 30 nM esiPer2 en (4) 30 nM esiPer2 in kombinasie met 2.5 μM doxorubicin of 10 nM bafilomycin A1. Na die behandeling, is sellewensvatbaarheid bepaal deur gebruik te maak van ‘n MTT toets; westelike kladtegniek is gebruik om vir merkers van apoptose soos p-MDM2 (Ser166), p-p53 (Ser15), gekliefde caspase-3 en -PARP asook vir merkers van autofagie (AMPKα, mTOR en LC3) te toets. Die selsiklus, G2/M oorgang en seldood (Hoechst 33342 en propidium iodide kleuring) is deur middel van vloeisitometrie bepaal. Per2 is ook farmakologies geïnhibeer deur MDA-MB-231 selle met 40 mM metformin asook in kombinasie met 2.5 μM doxorubicin te behandel. Daarna is sellewensvatbaarheid (MTT) sowel as die selsiklus (vloeisitometrie) en apoptose (westelike kladtegniek vir Per2, p-AMPKα (Thr172), p53, caspase-3 and PARP) gemeet. Resultate en bespreking: ‘n Sirkadiese patroon vir Per2 proteïen uitdrukking is in die normale MCF-12A selle asook in die MDA-MB-231 kankerselle waargeneem met proteïenvlakke wat hul piek by ±700% and ±500% onderskeidelik in vergelyking met basislyn bereik het. Geen ritmiese patroon van Per2 proteïen uitdrukking is egter in die MCF-7 kankerselle waargeneem nie. Immunokleuring om Per2 ligging te bepaal het getoon dat Per2 in the sitoplasma sowel as in die nukleus in beide MCF-12A en MDA-MB-231 selle voorgekom het. Konsentrasie kurwes het aangetoon dat daar ‘n insiggewende vermindering in sellewensvatbaarheid voorgekom het na die behandeling van die selle met 2.5 μM doxorubicin vir 24 uur. Per2 proteïen uitdrukking is insiggewend verlaag met beide esiPer2 en metformin behandeling van die selle. esiPer2 aleen of in kombinasie met doxorubicin behandeling het selsiklus staking tot gevolg gehad asook ‘n beduidende toename in apoptose veroorsaak wat dus aangedui het dat esiPer2 effektief was om MDA-MB-231 kankerselle te sensitiseer vir die anti-karsinogeniese doxorubicin behandeling. Modulering van Per2 proteïen uitdrukking was effektief met metformin behandeling, alhoewel die afname onafhanklik van AMPKα fosforilasie plaasgevind het. ‘n Insiggewende toename in apoptose is waargeneem na metformin behandeling in kombinasie met doxorubicin. Geen veranderinge in die selsiklus is egter onder hierdie omstandighede waargeneem nie. Per2 blyk betrokke te wees in die regulering van autofagie aangesien ‘n insiggewende verhoging in autofagie omsetting waargeneem is na esiPer2 behandeling. Die toename in autofagie omsetting is geassosieer met ‘n insiggewende toename in seldood in MDA-MB-231 kankerselle wat verder verhoog is wanneer autofagie met bafilomycin A1 (autofagie inhibitor) in kombinasie met esiPer2 behandel is. Gevolgtrekkings: Per2 proteïen uitdrukking het ‘n 24 uur sirkadiese ritme in die MCF-12A normale selle, en tot ‘n mindere mate in die MDA-MB-231 selle getoon. Die MCF-7 selle het egter geen ritmiese patroon van Per2 proteïen uitdrukking getoon nie. Per2 kom hoofsaaklik in die sitoplasma voor en het slegs in die nukleus voorgekom wanneer die sitoplasmiese fluoresensie intensiteit laer was. esiPer2 was dus effektief om die chemo-weerstandbiedende MDA-MB-231 borskankerselle te sensitiseer vir doxorubicin-geïnduseerde seldood.
Description
Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2014.
Keywords
Breast cancer -- Chemotherapeutic strategies, Circadian rhythms, Breast cancer -- Treatment, UCTD, Theses -- Physiology (Human and animal), Dissertations -- Physiology (Human and animal)