Access to healthcare services in resource-constrained environments : evidence from Zimbabwe

Date
2023-12
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Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University
Abstract
ENGLISH SUMMARY: Access to healthcare services is fundamental to health and well-being, yet approximately half of the world’s population is unable to access healthcare services in times of need, which derails attainment of the Sustainable Development Goals. Weak access to healthcare services is a global health challenge, and is prevalent in Zimbabwe. This weak access is attributed to a fragile and fragmented health system, characterised by weak and ineffective service delivery. The fragmented health system affects particularly the already disadvantaged population through healthcare services that are either unaffordable or unavailable. As part of achieving the global Sustainable Development Goals, Zimbabwe aims to address inequality in and weak access to its healthcare services. This thesis examined fiscal incidence and inequality in access to healthcare services in Zimbabwe, using 2017 administrative health expenditure data from the Ministry of Health and Child Care and the Prices, Income, Consumption and Expenditure Survey of the Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency. Fiscal incidence was found to be, on average, pro-poor for Zimbabwe’s low-level facilities, and pro-rich for high-level facilities. It was further found that availability and affordability are, on average, pro-rich. Thus, differential access to health services between rural and urban areas was contributing to pro-rich inequality. Despite government healthcare expenditure, inequality in availability and affordability of healthcare services remains a challenge. Pockets of inequality persist in the healthcare sector, as the more affluent continue to benefit from well-resourced facilities. The government should, therefore, focus on poor and rural populations, who bear the brunt of weak access to healthcare services. While the effects and causes of drug stockouts are well articulated, there is a dearth of literature on the link between district-level drug stockouts and poverty. This thesis investigated the spatial inequality of drug stockouts and the relationship between drug stockouts and district poverty in Zimbabwe using data on district-level drug stockouts and poverty. The results showed that spatial inequality in drug stockouts and district poverty exists, while the relationship between drug stockouts and district poverty was weak and insignificant. Spatial interdependence in drug stockouts between districts also exists, indicating hot spots in drug stockouts. In times of drug stockouts, individuals tend to use alternatives to healthcare, some of which pose health dangers, and it is therefore important to improve drug availability in underserved districts by reducing spatial inequality and hot spots in drug stockouts. Given the negative effects of malaria on the vulnerable population, this thesis examined the association between malaria prophylaxis stockouts and birth- and maternal outcomes in Zimbabwe. Preventive efforts against malaria are crucial, given that pregnant women and neonates bear the greatest malaria burden. Therefore, it was hypothesised that women who do not receive malaria prophylaxis during pregnancy are at risk of malaria infections, which compromise birth weight and cause maternal anaemia. Combining the administrative data on malaria prophylaxis stockouts and 2015 nationally representative Demographic Health Survey data, the results showed that malaria prophylaxis stockouts occur frequently over time, and have a significant association with birth weight, especially for neonates with an average birth weight. Stockouts are associated with neonates tending towards the lower end of a normal birth weight, compromising their development. Thus, there is a need to invest in pharmaceutical information- and stock-ordering systems to improve drug availability at the point of care. In conclusion, there is inequality in healthcare services in Zimbabwe, which causes a heavy burden on poor and rural populations. These vulnerable populations have weak access to healthcare services, despite the government's efforts to improve service provision. This thesis sheds more light on access to healthcare services, to enhance relevant stakeholders’ understanding of this subject. To achieve an equitable society, policymakers should address the inequalities in access to healthcare services, together with the socio-demographic determinants of health. Policymakers should improve resource management, follow a needs-based approach, invest in pharmaceutical information systems and stock-ordering systems, and foster multi-stakeholder collaboration to ensure improved access to healthcare services.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Toegang tot gesondheidsorgdienste is fundamenteel vir gesondheid en welstand, tog is ongeveer die helfte van die wereld se bevolking nie in staat om toegang tot gesondheidsorgdienste te verkry in tye van nood nie, wat die bereiking van die Volhoubare Ontwikkelingsdoelwitte ontspoor. Swak toegang tot gesondheidsorgdienste is 'n globale gesondheidsuitdaging, en is ooglopend in Zimbabwe. Die swak toegang in hierdie land word toegeskryf aan 'n brose en gefragmenteerde gesondheidstelsel, gekenmerk deur swak en ondoeltreffende dienslewering. Die gefragmenteerde gesondheidstelsel raak veral die reeds benadeelde bevolking deur gesondheidsorgdienste wat of onbekostigbaar of onbeskikbaar is. As deel van die bereiking van die wereldwye Volhoubare Ontwikkelingsdoelwitte, poog Zimbabwe om die ongelykheid in en swak toegang tot gesondheidsorgdienste aan te spreek. Hierdie studie het fiskale voorkoms en ongelykheid in toegang tot gesondheidsorgdienste in Zimbabwe ondersoek, deur gebruik te maak van 2017 administratiewe gesondheidsuitgawedata van die Ministerie van Gesondheid en Kindersorg en die Demographic Health Survey van Zimbabwe se nasionale statistiese agentskap. Daar is gevind dat fiskale voorkoms gemiddeld pro-arm is vir Zimbabwe se laevlakfasiliteite, en pro-ryk vir hoevlakfasiliteite. Daar is verder bevind dat beskikbaarheid en bekostigbaarheid gemiddeld pro-ryk is. Dus, dra verskillende toegang tot gesondheidsdienste tussen landelike en stedelike gebiede by tot pro-ryk ongelykheid. Ten spyte van staatsgesondheidsuitgawes bly ongelykheid in beskikbaarheid en bekostigbaarheid van gesondheidsorgdienste 'n uitdaging. Konsentrasies van ongelykheid duur voort in die gesondheidsektor, aangesien die meer welgesteldes steeds voordeel trek uit fasiliteite met goeie hulpbronne. Die regering moet dus fokus op arm en landelike bevolkings, wat die swaarste dra aan swak toegang tot gesondheidsorgdienste. Alhoewel die gevolge en oorsake van tekorte aan medikasievoorraad welbekend is, is daar 'n gebrek aan literatuur oor die verband tussen distriksvlak-medikasievoorraad en armoede. Hierdie navorsing het die ruimtelike ongelykheid in medikasievoorraad en die verband tussen medikasietekorte en distriksarmoede in Zimbabwe ondersoek, gebaseer op data oor distriksvlak-medikasietekorte en armoede. Die resultate het getoon dat ruimtelike ongelykheid in medikasietekorte en distriksarmoede bestaan, terwyl die verband tussen medikasietekorte en distriksarmoede swak en onbeduidend is. Ruimtelike interafhanklikheid in medikasietekorte tussen distrikte bestaan ook, wat brandpunte in medikasietekorte aandui. In tye van tekorte aan medikasie is individue geneig om alternatiewe vir gesondheidsorg te gebruik, waarvan sommige gesondheidsgevare inhou. Dit is daarom belangrik om medikasiebeskikbaarheid in onderbediende distrikte te verbeter deur ruimtelike ongelykheid en brandpunte in medikasietekorte te verminder. Gegewe die negatiewe uitwerking van malaria op die kwesbare bevolking, ondersoek hierdie tesis die verband tussen malaria-profilakse-tekorte en geboorte- en moederuitkomste in Zimbabwe. Voorkomende pogings teen malaria is van kardinale belang, aangesien swanger vroue en pasgeborenes die grootste malarialas dra. Daarom is die hipotese gestel dat vroue wat nie malaria-profilakse tydens swangerskap ontvang nie, die risiko loop van malaria-infeksies, wat geboortegewig benadeel en moederlike bloedarmoede veroorsaak. Deur die administratiewe data oor malaria-profilakse-tekorte en die data van 2015 se nasionaal verteenwoordigende Demographic Health Survey te kombineer, het die resultate getoon dat malaria-profilakse-tekorte gereeld voorkom met verloop van tyd, en 'n beduidende assosiasie met geboortegewig het, veral vir pasgeborenes met 'n gemiddelde geboortegewig. Medikasietekorte word geassosieer met neonate wat na die onderste punt van 'n normale geboortegewig neig, wat hul ontwikkeling benadeel. Daar is dus 'n behoefte om te bele in farmaseutiese inligting- en voorraadbestellingstelsels om die beskikbaarheid van medisyne by die sorgpunt te verbeter. Ten slotte, daar is ongelykheid in gesondheidsorgdienste in Zimbabwe, wat 'n swaar las op die arm en landelike bevolking veroorsaak, ten spyte van hul beduidende behoefte aan dienste. Hierdie kwesbare bevolking het swak toegang tot gesondheidsorgdienste, ten spyte van die regering se pogings om dienslewering te verbeter. Hierdie tesis werp meer lig op toegang tot gesondheidsorgdienste, om relevante belanghebbendes se begrip van hierdie onderwerp te verbeter. Om 'n billike samelewing te bereik, moet beleidmakers die ongelykhede in toegang tot gesondheidsorgdienste aanspreek, sowel as die sosio-demografiese determinante van gesondheid. Dus, beleidmakers behoort hulpbronbestuur te verbeter, 'n behoefte-gebaseerde benadering te volg, bele in farmaseutiese inligtingstelsels en voorraadbestellingstelsels, en multi-belanghebbende samewerking bevorder ten einde verbeterde toegang tot gesondheidsorgdienste te verseker.
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Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2023.
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