Development of a conceptual framework of childhood tuberculosis within which to study the impact of a preventive therapy program for childhood tuberculosis prevention in high burden communities

Date
2015-12
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Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University
Abstract
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Tuberculosis (TB) control remains a global challenge, with childhood TB representing 15-40% of the disease burden in resource-limited high-burden countries. Following infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb), the 5-year risk of TB is 33% in children under five years of age and 20% for children five to 14 years of age. TB risk is greatest in the year following infection and highest among young, malnourished and immune-compromised children. Preventive therapy (PT) decreases TB morbidity and mortality amongst child contacts. Nevertheless, in 2010, of 7.6 million children infected with M.tuberculosis, over 650,000 developed TB, and 74,000 HIV-uninfected children died of TB. The World Health Organization (WHO) routinely recommends PT in children younger than five years of age and HIV-infected children (regardless of age) who are in close contact with an infectious TB case. Nevertheless, childhood TB has become a public health priority only in the last decade and limited resources have been allocated towards prevention. Major gaps therefore remain between guidelines and implementation of PT in most TB high-burden settings. Childhood TB remains a field with many unanswered questions. How can we accurately identify children with M.tuberculosis infection to support more effective allocation of limited resources through targeted delivery of PT? How may policy be changed to improve PT uptake and adherence? What factors accurately predict which children are at highest risk of acquiring M.tuberculosis infection and progressing to disease? This thesis aimed to address these questions and develop a conceptual framework within which to study the impact of PT as a TB control strategy to reduce the burden of childhood TB in communities with high burden of TB. A stepwise approach supported completion of this thesis. A comprehensive review of the literature and pilot studies were completed to inform subsequent PhD work. A standardized measure of TB contact was developed to serve as a surrogate measure of M.tuberculosis infection in the absence of an accepted gold standard. This standardized measure of TB contact was validated in a well controlled, hospital-based, case-control study that supported comparison of the diagnostic accuracy of tests of M.tuberculosis infection among HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected children in the community. Original data was then generated and compared to the validated measure of TB contact to demonstrate that in a model controlling for multiple confounders new tests of infection correlate better with TB exposure than the traditional Tuberculin skin test. This study further demonstrated that active contact investigation can detect TB in up to 8% of child contacts within three months of exposure. Development of the conceptual framework was complemented by systematic review and metaanalysis of the diagnostic accuracy of tests of M.tuberculosis infection, and decision analysis modeling of the cost-effectiveness of M.tuberculosis testing strategies in child contacts. The conceptual framework was further enriched by a collection of complementary research projects including i) PT operational and qualitative research, ii) epidemiologic studies in South Africa, iii) diagnostic studies in the United States, and iv) invited reviews, commentaries and letters to the editor. The thesis concludes by highlighting remaining gaps in the evidence and future research that could potentially fill these gaps.
AFRIKAANS OPSOMMING: Die beheer van tuberkulose (TB) bly 'n globale uitdaging. TB onder kinders kan tot 15-40% van alle TB siekte in areas met n hoë lading van TB verteenwoordig, veral in hulpbron-beperkte omgewings. Nadat 'n kind met die Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tuberculosis) organisme geïnfekteer is, is die risiko om TB siekte in die volgende 5 jaar te ontwikkel, 33% in kinders onder die ouderdom van 5 jaar, en 20% in kinders tussen die ouderdom van vyf tot 14 jaar. Die risiko om TB te ontwikkel is die grootste in die eerste jaar na infeksie, en die hoogste in jong, wangevoede en immuunonderdrukte kinders. Voorkomende behandeling vir TB verminder beide die morbiditeit en mortaliteit onder kinder met TB-blootstelling. Desnieteenstaande was daar 'n geskatte 7.6 miljoen kinders geïnfekteer met M.tuberculosis, het daar omtrent 650 000 kinders TB siekte ontwikkel, en omtrent 74 000 HIV-negatiewe kinders aan TB gesterf in 2010. Die Wereld Gesondheidsorganisasie (WGO) beveel roetine TB voorkomende behandeling in kinders onder die ouderom van 5 jaar aan, asook in HIV-positiewe kinders wat in nabye kontak met 'n aansteeklike TB pasient is. TB onder kinders het egter eers 'n prioriteit in openbare gesondheidsprogramme geword in die laaste dekade, en min hulpbronne is tot dusver gewy aan TB -voorkoming onder kinders. Daar bly dus groot gapings oor tussen riglyne en die praktiese implementering van TB -voorkomende behandeling in die meeste hoë-lading TB gebiede. Kindertuberkulose is nog steeds ‘n veld met baie onopgeloste vraagstukke. Hoe kan ons kinders met M.tuberculosis infeksie meer akkuraat diagnoseer sodat ons ons hulpbronne meer effektief kan benut deur gerigte TB voorkomende behandeling te gee? Hoe kan ons die beleid verander om TB- voorkomende behandeling beter te implementer en ook te voltooi in kinders? Watter faktore voorspel akkuraat watter kinders die hooste risiko van TB -infeksie en siekte progressie het? Hierdie tesis bespreek hierdie kernvrae en ontwikkel 'n konseptuele raamwerk waarbinne mens die impak van voorkomende behandeling as 'n beheerstrategie vir TB kan bestudeer word, sodat die lading van kindertuberkulose op die ou einde verminder sal word, veral in hoë-lading gemeenskappe. Hierdie tesis is deur 'n stapsgewyse proses voltooi. Eers is 'n volledige literatuuroorsig gedoen en is loodsprojekte uitgevoer, wat ook die PhD werk se voltooiing beïnvloed het. Ek het ‘n standard maatstaf van die bepaling TB-kontak ontwikkel, wat as ‘n alternatief vir TB infeksie kan dien omdat daar nie n erkende goue standaard is vir die bepaling van TB infeksie nie. Hierdie maatstaf van TB kontak is bevestig in ‘n gekontroleerde, hospitaalgebaseerde gevalle-kontrole studie. Hierdie studie het die diagnostiese akkuraatheid van nuwe TB infeksietoetse kon vasstel in HIV-positiewe en HIV-negatiewe kinders in die gemeenskap. Oorspronklike data is daarna geskep om die nuwe bloedtoetse vir TB infeksie met die standard TB kontakmaatstaf wat ontwikkel is, te vergelyk, in ‘n model wat vir veelvuldige veranderlikes gekontroleer het. Hierdie model het gewys dat die nuwe bloedtoetse vir TB infeksie beter korreleer met TB blootstelling as die tradisionele tuberkulienveltoets. Hierdie studie het ook gewys dat deur kinders met TB blootstelling aktief te ondersoek, tot 8% van kinders met aktiewe TB siekte geïdentifiseer kan word binne die eerste drie maande na TB blootstelling. Die ontwikkeling van die konsepsuele raamwerk is gekomplementeer deur 'n sistematiese oorsig en meta-analise van die akkuraatheid van TB-infeksietoetse, asook deur besluitsanalise modellering wat die koste-effektiwiteit van verskillende TB toetsing-strategieë in kinderkontakte kon vastel. Die konsepsuele raamwerk is verryk deur 'n versameling van die volgende aanvullende projekte: i) Operasionele en kwalitatiewe navorsing oor TB voorkomende behandeling, ii) epidemiologiese navorsing in Suid-Afrka, iii) diagnostiese studies in die Verenigde State van Amerika, en iv) uitgenooide kommentaarstukke, literatuuroorsigte en redaksionele. Hierdie tesis sluit af deur die oorblywende gapings in bestaande kennis, en toekomstige navorsingsgeleenthede, te beklemtoon.
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Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2015.
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