Medicinal plant trade and opportunities for sustainable 
management in the Cape Peninsula, South Africa 
 
 
by 
 
 
Paul-Marie Loundou 
 
 
 
 
 
Thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of 
Master of Science  
At  
Stellenbosch University 
 
Department of Conservation Ecology and Entomology  
Faculty of Agricultural and Forestry Sciences 
 
 
Supervisor: Dr. Scotney Watts 
December 2008 
 i
 
Declaration 
 
By submitting this thesis electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work 
contained therein is my own, original work, that I am the owner of the copyright 
thereof (unless to the extent explicitly otherwise stated) and that I have not 
previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification. 
 
 
Date: 15 December 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Copyright © 2008 Stellenbosch University 
 
All rights reserved 
 
 ii 
Abstract 
Medicinal plants represent an important asset to the livelihoods of many people in 
developing countries. This is the case for South Africa where most of the rural and also urban 
communities rely on medicinal plants for their primary healthcare needs and income generation. 
Harvesting for domestic usage is not generally detrimental to the wild populations of medicinal 
plants. However, the shift from subsistence to commercial harvesting is posing unprecedented 
extinction threat to the wild populations of medicinal plants. The purpose of this investigation 
was to: (1) document the most traded/used species of medicinal plants in the Cape Peninsula, 
including parts used, sourcing regions, harvesting frequencies and seasons as well as the 
conservation status of these species; (2) to profile and investigate the rationales for the 
involvement of stakeholders in medicinal plants related-activities; and to (3) assess constraints 
and opportunities for sustainable management of medicinal plants in the Cape Peninsula. 
Triangulation techniques such as semi-structured questionnaires, formal and informal 
interactions with key informants from the Cape Peninsula and surroundings, personal 
observations and field visits were used to gather relevant data for this investigation.  
Accordingly, about 170 medicinal plant species were found to be actively traded or used 
in the study area. These species were mostly traded/used for their underground parts; shoot, 
barks and in many cases the whole plant is uprooted. The bulk of traded/used species were from 
the wild populations, harvested on monthly basis and the Western and Eastern Cape provinces 
acted as the main source regions. Some of the traded/used species are rare, vulnerable, 
endangered, critically endangered and are declining from the wild. Nonetheless, there are 
subtitutes for some of these medicinal plant species. Traders and collectors were mainly men in 
the Cape Peninsula. Cultural considerations, economic conditions and the burden imposed by the 
number of dependents were the factors influencing local communities to engage in medicinal 
plants related-activities.  
Despite the fact that the majority of the informants acknowledged the decline of 
medicinal plants from wild stocks, an overwhelming number of them expected an upsurge in the 
future demand for natural remedy due to its popularity among South Africans. Similarly, the 
majority of the respondents were aware of the conservation status of the plants that they were 
using, but this did not prevent them from trading/using some protected species. Encouragingly, 
an overwhelming number of the informants were willing to use cultivated species and cultivate 
some of the most used medicinal plant species if seeds and land were freely provided. It is 
noteworthy that these results were influenced by the gender, age, category and time of 
involvement in medicinal plants, ethnicity and residence status of the respondents as well as the 
source of supply of medicinal plants. It is recommended that species that have been identified of 
concern should be prevented from further commercial harvesting. Competent conservation 
organizations like CapeNature should focus on practical skills development of people who have 
expressed willingness to cultivate medicinal plants or are already doing so, especially in plant 
propagation and basic gardening techniques.  
 iii 
Opsomming 
Medisinale plante verteenwoordig ʼn belangrike bate tot onder verdeling van die bestaan 
van baie mense in ontwikkelende gemeenskappe. Dit is ook die geval vir Suid-Afrika, waar 
meeste landelike en ook stedelike gemeenskappe afhanklik is van medisinale plante vir primêre 
gesondheids doeleindes asook inkomste voortbrenging. Oes van medisinale plante vir 
huishoudelike gebruik is gewoonlik nie skadelik vir wilde populasies nie, maar die sigbare skuif 
van bestaansboerdery na kommersiële oeste skep ʼn bedreiging vir die voortvarendheid van 
hierdie wilde populasies. Die doel van hierdie studie was: (1) om vas te stel watter medisinale 
plant spesies word die meeste gebruik/verhandel in die Kaapse Skiereiland, insluitend die 
plantdele gebruik, areas waar geoes word, oes frekwensies en seisoen van oes, asook die 
bewaringstatus van die spesies; (2) om ondersoek in te stel na die hoof redes waarom 
aandeelhouers by medisinale plant verwante aktiwiteite betrokke is; (3) om die beperkinge en 
geleenthede van volhoubare bestuur van medisinale plante in die Kaapse Skiereiland te 
assesseer. Triangulasie tegnieke soos semi-gestruktureerde vraelyste, formele en informele 
interaksie met sleutel segsmanne van die Kaapse Skiereiland en omliggende areas, persoonlike 
waarnemings, en veld besoeke was alles gebruik om relevante data vir hierdie ondersoek te 
verkry. 
Gevolglik was gevind dat sowat 170 medisinale plant spesies aktief in die studie area 
verhandel of gebruik word.  Hierdie spesies was meestal verhandel vir hul ondergrondse plant 
dele. Daarmee saam ook lote, insluitend die bas, en ook in baie gevalle heel plante waar die hele 
plant opgegrawe en verkoop word. Die meerderheid van die verhandelde/gebruikte spesies was 
van wilde populasies, geoes op ʼn maandelikse basis met die Wes-en Oos-Kaap provinsies as die 
hoof bron areas. Sommige van die verhandelde/gebruikte spesies is raar, kwesbaar, bedreig, 
krities bedreig en toon afnames uit die natuur. Nietemin, daar bestaan wel plaasvervangers vir 
sommige van hierdie medisinale plant spesies. Handelaars en versamelaars was hoofsaaklik 
mans van die Kaapse Skiereiland. Kulturele inagnemings, ekonomiese kondisies en die las van 
aantal afhanklikes was die faktore wat plaaslike gemeenskappe beïnvloed het om verbind te 
word aan medisinale plant verwante aktiwiteite. 
Ten spyte daarvan dat die oorgrootte meerderheid van segsmanne bewus is van die 
afname van medisinale plante in wilde populasies, verwag ʼn groot hoeveelheid van hulle ook dat 
daar ʼn opgang in die toekomstige aanvraag na hierdie natuurlike geneesmiddels sal wees omdat 
dit so gewild is onder Suid-Afrikaners. Soortgelyk was die oorgrootte meerderheid van die 
respondente wel bewus van die bewaringstatus van die plante wat hul gebruik, tog het dit hulle 
nie verhoed om hierdie beskermde spesies te gebruik of te verhandel nie. Aan die positiewe kant, 
ʼn groot aantal van die respondente het ook aangedui dat hulle bereid is om gekweekte spesies te 
gebruik en om selfs van die mees gebruikte spesies self te kweek, mits saad en land verniet 
verskaf word. Dis opmerkingswaardig dat hierdie resultate beïnvloed was deur geslag, 
ouderdom, kategorie en tyd van betrokkenheid by medisinale plante, etniese verwantskap, 
woning status asook die voorsieningsbron van die medisinale plante. Dit is voorgestel dat spesies 
wat as in gevaar geïdentifiseer is, verbied moet word om verder kommersieel geoes te word. 
 iv 
Bekwame bewarings organisasies soos CapeNature moet fokus op praktiese handigheids 
ontwikkeling van daardie mense wat aangedui het dat hulle wel bereidwillig is om medisinale 
plante aan te kweek asook die wat al klaar besig is met kweek, veral rondom plant voortplanting 
en basiese tuinmaak tegnieke. 
 v 
Acknowledgments 
 
I would like first to thank the Bourses et Stages, Gabonese Governmental institution, 
which provided the financial support for my studies in South Africa. The same gratitude goes to 
the Western Cape Conservation Board that provided logistic and human resources necessary for 
the completion of this investigation.  
I would also like to thank my promoter, Dr. S. Watts, for his availability and assistance in 
guiding the excution and completion of this thesis even at a time when he is no longer a staff of 
the Stellenbosch University. The same gratitude goes to Dr. Shayne M. Jacobs. 
Particular thanks to Dr. N. P. Makunga, B. Walton, E. van Jaarveld and P. Xaba for their 
valuable contributions to the identification of medicinal plant specimens. Thanks to my 
colleagues in Conservation Ecology and Entomology, especially those in Room 3003. My 
sincere appreciation to traders, collectors and traditional healers in Stellenbosch, Khayelitsha, 
Mfuleni, Macassar, Langa, Philippi, Gugulethu, Grabouw, Paarl, Kraaifontein, Bellville, Cape 
Central and Somerset West for their time and cooperation. 
I am grateful to the current and former Gabonese students for their assistance and 
encouragement, especially: A. M. Bivigou Koumba, P. Yoba N’goma, D. Nkoghe Obame, Dr. R. 
E. Lekogho, Dr. E. Nzeng, Dr. V. Moukambi, Dr. D. V. Moubandjo, Dr. J. F.Djoba Siawaya, Dr. 
H. S. Ndinga-Koumba-Binza, C. Mikolo Yobo, E. Mubamu Makady, D. Mubamu Nyama, A. P. 
Mintsa Mi Nzue, E. N’goo Edzidzi, C. Ombina, S. Ombinda Lemboumba, S. R. Orendo, H. R. 
Memiaghe, S. D. Opoubou Lando, A. A. Mfa Mezui, L. S. Soami, E. A. Apinda Legnouo, G. 
Saphou Bivigat, E. Mambela, D. Midoko Iponga, G. Ella, B. Etoughe Bekale, T. Theta 
Ogandaga, P. Mondjo Mbembo, A. Godinet y Godinet, R. Ango Sylong, J. Tsoumbou, A. B. 
Mayombo Mondjo, B. Mvou Lekogho, R. Mburu, G. B. Boussiengui, H. A, Eyeghe Bickong, S. 
Biveghe, E. Pindza, G. Nzenguet Boukondo, P. Etoughe Kongo, V. S. Idima and E. Ngounda. 
Finally, I thank my family for their patience and financial support, particularly to A. 
Mbenga, T. Issesse, M. Koumba, M. Ndongo, T. Lebola Tomba, J. Tchinga, P. Makita, J. 
Bouyimbou, J. Y. Banga, Dr. J. B. Mouketou, Dr. P. Nzengue, H. H. Ndongo, D. Ndongo, P. P. 
Ndongo, L. Ngaba, A. Moukouti, P. Boucka, R. Boucka, J. H. Bonga, E. Youma, M. N’guilessa, 
V. Youma, F. Riaba, O. Riaba, D. Moulaka, Dr. C. Boupassia, M. Mouketou, A. Boussoyi, A. 
Mangongo, A. R. Boussoye and my lovely daughter L. F. Koghe Loundou. 
 vi 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
DECLARATION.........................................................................................................................................II 
ABSTRACT...............................................................................................................................................III 
OPSOMMING...........................................................................................................................................IV 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.........................................................................................................................VI 
LIST OF FIGURES....................................................................................................................................X 
LIST OF TABLES...................................................................................................................................XII 
APENDIX.................................................................................................................................................XII 
 
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………….………………..1 
1.1. IMPORTANCE OF PLANTS IN TRADITIONAL HEALTHCARE SYSTEMS……………...…….…….1 
1.2. SOUTH AFRICAN INFORMAL MARKET FOR MEDICINAL PLANTS……………………………….2 
1.3. PROBLEM STATEMENT……………………………………...…………..………………………………………..3 
1.4. RESEARCH AIM AND OBJECTIVES………………………………………………………..……….…..4 
1.5. DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY SITE………………………………………………………….….……..6 
1.5.1. VEGETATION…………………………………………………………………………………………………6 
1.5.2. NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT………………………………………………………...……….7 
1.5.3. SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROFILE OF THE WESTERN CAPE…………………………………………………8 
1.6 METHODOLOGY………………………………………………………………………………..……..…11 
1.6.1. FIRST ENTRY AND PILOT STUDY………………………………………………………………………..11 
1.6.2. DATA COLLECTION………………………………………………………………..………………………11 
1.6.3. SAMPLING PROCEDURE…………………………………………………………………………………..13 
1.6.4. SPECIES IDENTIFICATION…………………………………………………………….……………….….14 
1.6.5. DATA CODING AND ANALYSING…………………………….………………………………………….14 
1.7 SIGNIFICANCE AND CONTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY……………………………………...…………..15 
1.8 THESIS STRUCTURE…………………………………………………………………………………….16 
 
CHAPTER 2: MEDICINAL PLANT TRADE, THREATS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR 
CONSERVATION……………………………………………………………………………………….18 
2.1 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………………………….…18 
2.2 THE PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY……………………………………………...………………….18 
2.3 MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS INDUSTRY………………………………………..……….20 
2.3.1. OVERVIEW OF THE INTERNATIONAL MARKET FOR MEDICINAL AND  
AROMATIC PLANTS………………………………………………………….…………………………….21 
2.3.2. NUMBER OF SPECIES IN TRADE AND MEANS OF SUPPLY…………………………...……………….…..22 
2.4 OVERVIEW OF THE SOUTHERN AFRICAN BOTANICAL INDUSTRY……………...………….…………23 
 vii 
2.5 MAIN DRIVERS FOR MEDICINAL PLANT SPECIES LOSS………………………………………….24 
2.5.1. HABITAT DEGRADATION AND LAND TRANSFORMATION…………………………………………24 
2.5.2. POPULATION GROWTH, UNEMPLOYMENT AND POVERTY………………………………………...25 
2.5.3. DECLINE OF CUSTOMARY CONTROLS…………………………………...…………………………….26 
2.6 APPROACHES TO MEDICINAL PLANT CONSERVATION………………………………………….26 
2.6.1. GLOBAL BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION INITIATIVES……………………………………………..27 
2.6.2. MEDICINAL PLANT CULTIVATION………………………………………..…………………………….28 
2.7 CONCLUDING REMARK……………………………………………………………………………………..…..30 
 
CHAPTER 3: OVERVIEW OF MEDICINAL PLANTS TRADED/USED IN THE CAPE 
PENINSULA……………………………………………………………….……………………………..31 
3.1 INTRODUCTION……………...…………………………………………………………………………..31 
3.2 RESULTS………………………………………………………………………..…………………………32 
3.2.1. THE PLANTS TRADED/USED……………………………..……………………………………………….32 
3.2.2. SOURCES OF TRADED/USED MEDICINAL PLANTS AND HARVESTING FREQUENCY…………..43 
3.2.3. FINANCIAL VALUE OF SOME MEDICINAL PLANT SPECIES……..……………………………...46 
3.3. DISCUSSION………………………………………………….……………………………………………………..50 
3.3.1. OVERVIEW OF THE MOST TRADED/USED MEDICINAL PLANT SPECIES………………………….50 
3.3.2. PARTS TRADED/USED, HARVESTING FREQUENCIES AND SEASONS…………………….……….53 
3.3.3. FINANCIAL VALUE OF TRADED SPECIES………………………………..…………………………….54 
3.4. CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………………………………….55 
 
CHAPTER 4: SOCIAL, CULTURAL AND ECONOMIC ATTRIBUTES INFLUENCING  
THE TRADE OF MEDICINAL PLANTS IN THE CAPE PENINSULA…………………………...56 
4.1. INTRODUCTION………………….………………………………………………………………………56 
4.2. RESULTS…………………………………………………………………………………………………..57 
4.2.1. GENDER OF THE RESPONDENTS………………………………………………………...………………57 
4.2.2. AGE GROUPS OF THE RESPONDENTS………………………….……………………………………….59 
4.2.3. ETHNICITY…………………………………………………………………………………………………..63 
4.2.4. RESIDENCE STATUS………………...……………………………………………………………………..67 
4.2.5. INCOME, EDUCATIONAL LEVELS AND DURATION OF INVOLVEMENT IN  
MEDICINAL PLANTS…………………………….…………………………………………………………71 
4.3. DISCUSSION…………………………………...……………………………………………………………………74 
4.3.1. CULTURAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONSIDERATION AS DRIVING FACTORS  
FOR THE USE/TRADE OF MEDICINAL PLANTS………………………………………….…………….74 
4.3.2. INFLUENCE OF GENDER ON THE TRADE OF MEDICINAL PLANTS…………….……………….…77 
4.3.3. INFLEUNCE OF AGE AND INCOME……………………………………………………………………...78 
4.3.4. INFLUENCE OF ETHNICITY AND AREA OF BIRTH ON THE TRADE OF MEDICINAL  
PLANTS…………………………………………………………..……………………………………….….80 
 viii 
4.4. CONCLUSION………………………………………...…………………………………………………..83 
 
CHAPTER 5: CONSTRAINTS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR CONSERVING MEDICINAL 
PLANTS IN THE CAPE PENINSULA………………...………………………………………………84 
5.1. INTRODUCTION………………………………….………………………………………………………84 
5.2. RESULTS…………………………………………………………….…………………………………….85 
5.2.1. DEPLETION AND PROTECTION STATUS AWARENESS……………………………………….....85 
5.2.2. PERCEPTIONS OF THE FUTURE DEMAND FOR MEDICINAL PLANTS…………………………..87 
5.2.3. PERCEPTIONS ON THE DEPLETION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS……………………………...…...90 
5.2.4. WILLINGNESS TO BUY CULTIVATED MEDICINAL PLANTS……………………………...…………94 
5.2.5. WILLINGNESS TO GROW SOME MEDICINAL PLANTS SPECIES…………………………………….96 
5.2.6. CHALLENGES AND NEEDS…………………………………………….………………………………….98 
5.3. DISCUSSION…………………………...………………………………………………………………..100 
5.3.1. AWARENESS ON THE DEPLETION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS…………………………...……...100 
5.3.2. PERCEPTIONS ABOUT THE FUTURE DEMAND FOR MEDICINAL PLANTS SPECIES…………...103 
5.3.3. PERCEPTIONS ABOUT CULTIVATION AND CULTIVATED MEDICINAL PLANT SPECIES….….105 
5.4. CONCLUSION………………………………………………………...…………………………………107 
 
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS……………………………………108 
6.1. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………...…………………...………………………108 
6.2. CONCLUSIONS………………………………………………………………………………………….109 
6.2.1. SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTIC OF STAKEHOLDERS………………………………......109 
6.2.2. OVERVIEW OF MEDICINAL PLANTS IN TRADE/USE IN THE CAPE PENINSULA……………...110 
6.2.3. STAKEHOLDERS’ AWARENESSS AND WILLINGNESS TO OVERTURN THE  
ONGOING DEPLETION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS………………………………………………….….112 
6.2.4. SUMMARY OF MAIN FINDINGS FOR THE STUDY………………………..……………………………..….112 
6.3. RECOMMENDATIONS………………………………………………………………………………………..…113 
6.3.1. IN-SITU CONSERVATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS………………………………….……………....113 
6.3.2. EX-SITU PRESERVATION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS………………………………………………….115 
6.4. AREAS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH…………………………………………………………………….116 
6.5. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY……………………………………………….……………………….117 
6.6. REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………………………119 
 
 
 
 
 
 ix
LIST OF FIGURES 
 
FIGURE 1: LOCATION OF THE STUDY SITE..................................................................................................................10 
FIGURE 3A: OVERVIEW OF PLANT PARTS IN TRADE/USE….…...…..……………….....................…….....….....42 
FIGURE 3B: MEANS OF PROCUREMENT….....................................................................................................................44 
FIGURE 3C: SOURCES OF PLANT MATERIAL...............................................................................................................44 
FIGURE 3D: FREQUENCY OF HARVESTING..................................................................................................................45 
FIGURE 3E: HARVESTING SEASONS................................................................................................................................45 
FIGURE 4A: THE EFFECTS OF GENDER ON INVOLVEMENT CATEGORY IN THE TRADE OF  
MEDICINAL PLANTS…............................................................................................................................................................59 
FIGURE 4B: GENDER AND THE NUMBER OF DEPENDENTS SUPPORTED…...................................................59 
FIGURE 4C: THE EFFECTS OF AGE ON GENDER INVOLVEMENT IN THE TRADE OF MEDICINAL 
PLANTS…......................................................................................................................................................................................60 
FIGURE 4D: THE EFFECTS OF AGE ON THE INVOLVEMENT CATEGY IN THE TRADE OF  
MEDICINAL PLANTS…............................................................................................................................................................61 
FIGURE 4E: THE EFFECTS OF AGE ON THE TIME OF INVOLVEMENT IN THE TRADE...............................61 
FIGURE 4F: THE EFFECTS OF AGE ON THE NUMBER OF SOURCES OF SUPPLY..........................................62 
FIGURE 4G: THE EFFECTS OF AGE ON THE INCOME GENERATED FROM THE TRADE............................63 
FIGURE 4H: ETHNICITY AND THE AGE OF INVOLVEMENT IN THE TRADE OF MEDICINAL 
PLANTS……..................................................................................................................................................................................64 
FIGURE 4I: EFFECT OF ETHNICITY ON THE UNDERLYING RATIONALE FOR INVOLVEMENT….........65 
FIGURE 4J: NUMBER OF DEPENDENTS SUPPORTED AND ETHNICITY…........................................................65 
FIGURE 4K: EFFECT OF ETHNICITY ON SOURCES OF SUPPLY…........................................................................66 
FIGURE 4L: ETHNICITY AND THE MOST HARVESTING SEASONS.....................................................................67 
FIGURE 4M: EFFECT OF RESIDENCE STATUS ON THE UNDERLYING RATIONALE FOR  
INVOLVEMENT.…..........……………………………….……………………………………...................................................68 
FIGURE 4N: EFFECT OF RESIDENCE STATUS ON MEDICINAL PLANT TRADE DEPENDENCE…...........68 
FIGURE 4O: NUMBER OF DEPENDENTS SUPPORTED AND RESIDENCE STATUS…....................................69 
FIGURE 4P: EFFECT OF RESIDENCE STATUS ON MEDICINAL PLANT SOURCES OF SUPPLY................69 
FIGURE 4Q: EFFECT OF RESIDENCE STATUS ON THE NUMBER OF MEDICINAL PLANT 
 SOURCES OF SUPPLY.............................................................................................................................................................70 
FIGURE 4R: EFFECT OF RESIDENCE STATUS ON THE HARVESTING FREQUENCY…................................71 
FIGURE 4S: EDUCATIONAL LEVELS ATTAINED BY THE RESPONDENTS.......................................................72 
FIGURE 4T: INCOME GENERATED FROM THE TRADE OF MEDICINAL PLANTS…......................................72 
FIGURE 4U: DURATION OF INVOLVEMENT IN MEDICINAL PLANTS................................................................73 
FIGURE 4V: EFFECTS OF TRADE INVOLVEMENT CATEGORY ON THE INCOME GENERATED.............74 
FIGURE 5A: AWARENESS ON THE PROTECTION STATUS OF TRADED/USED SPECIES...…………..........86 
 
 x
FIGURE 5B: EFFECTS OF THETIME OF INVOLVEMENT ON THE PROTECTION STATUS  
AWARENESSOF TRADED SPECIES.....................................................................................................................................87 
FIGURE 5C: INFORMANT PERCEPTIONS ON CURRENT DEMAND COMPARED TO THE PAST……........89 
FIGURE 5D: INFORMANT PERCEPTIONS ON FUTURE DEMAND COMPARED TO CURRENT...........……..89 
FIGURE 5E: EFFECTS OF INCOME ON JUSTIFICATIONS FOR FUTURE INCREASES IN DEMAND  
FOR MEDICINAL PLANTS…..................................................................................................................................................90 
FIGURE 5F: PERCEPTIONS ON COMPLETE DEPLETION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS..........………….............91 
FIGURE 5G: USE OF SUBSTITUTES FOR THE MOST TRADED/USED MEDICINAL PLANTS...............…...91 
FIGURE 5H: EFFECTS OF TIME OF INVOLVEMENT ON THE USE OF SUBSTITUTES…...............................92 
FIGURE 5I: ETHNICITY AND PERCEPTIONS ON COMPLETE DEPLETION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS.....93 
FIGURE 5J: RESIDENCE STATUS AND PERCEPTIONS ON COMPLETE DEPLETION OF  
MEDICINAL PLANTS………....................................................................................................................................................93 
FIGURE 5K: ENGAGEMENT CATEGORY IN THE TRADE AND PERCEPTIONS ON COMPLETE 
DEPLETION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS..........................................................................…..................................................94 
FIGURE 5L: MEANS OF SUPPLY AND WILLINGNESS TO BUY CULTIVATED MEDICINAL 
PLANTS………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…...95 
FIGURE 5M: EFFECTS OF ETHNICITY ON THE WILLINGNESS TO CULTIVATE FREELY SUPPLIED 
SEEDS OF MEDICINAL PLANTS….......................................................................................................................................97 
FIGURE 5N: EFFECTS OF RESIDENCE STATUS ON THE WILLINGNESS TO CULTIVATE FREELY 
SUPPLIED SEEDS OF MEDICINAL PLANTS.....................................................................................................................97 
FIGURE 5O: SOURCES OF SUPPLY AND WILLINGNESS TO CULTIVATE FREELY SUPPLIED 
SEEDS OF MEDICINAL PLANTS….......................................................................................................................................98 
FIGURE 5P: INVOLVEMENT CATEGORY IN THE TRADE OF MEDICINAL PLANTS AND  
THE NEEDS OF THE RESPONDENTS…..............................................................................................................................99 
FIGURE 5Q: PRESENCE OF OUTSIDER GATHERERS…...........................................................................................100 
 xi
LIST OF TABLES 
 
TABLE 2A: GLOBAL PHARMACEUTICAL SALES, 1997-2004…...............................................................................19 
TABLE 2B: GLOBAL PHARMACEUTICAL SALES BY REGION, 2005......................................................…..........20 
TABLE 2C: THE 12-LEADING MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANT IMPORTING AND  
EXPORTING COUNTRIES………………………………………............................................................................................22 
TABLE 3A: CAPE PENINSULA’S MOST TRADED/USED MEDICINAL PLANTS IN ORDER  
OF FREQUENCY……………................................................................………..........................................................................33 
TABLE 3B: RASTAFARIANS’ MOST TRADED/USED MEDICINAL PLANTS.......................................................39 
TABLE 3C: TRADITIONAL HEALERS’ MOST USED PLANTS..............................................................................…40 
TABLE 3D: COMPARISON OF THE 10 MOST TRADED MEDICINAL PLANTS IN THE 
CAPE PENNINSULA, EASTERN CAPE AND KWAZULU-NATAL........................................................….................42 
TABLE 3E: SPECIES OF CONCERN….................................................................................................................................43 
TABLE 3F: AVERAGE PRICE AND PRICE VARIATION OF SOME TRADED MEDICINAL PLANT 
SPECIES….....................................................................................................................................................................................47 
TABLE 4A: SOCIO-ECONOMIC ATTRIBUTES OF THE SURVEYED RESPONDENTS...........................….......57 
TABLE 4B: AGE DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS......................................................................…...............60 
TABLE 5A: DEPLETION AWARENESS AND RATIONALE FOR THE DEPLETION OF SOME 
MEDICINAL PLANTS…............................................................................................................................................................85 
TABLE 5B: DYNAMICS AND RATIONALE FOR FUTURE INCREASE OR DECREASE IN MEDICINAL 
PLANTS USAGE…………………………………......................................................................................................................88 
TABLE 5C: WILLINGNESS AND RATIONALE FOR BUYING OR NOT BUYING CULTIVATED 
MEDICINAL PLANTS......................................................................................................................…......................................95 
TABLE 5D: WILLINGNESS AND RATIONALE FOR GROWING OR NOT GROWING MEDICINAL  
PLANTS IF SEEDS ARE FREELY PROVIDED…...............................................................................................................96 
TABLE 5E: NEEDS AND CHALLENGES…........................................................................................................................99 
 
APPENDIX 
 
APPENDIX A: LIST OF SPECIES MOST TRADED/USED IN THE CAPE PENINSULA........................….........134 
APPENDIX B: MARKET SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE..........................................................................................…...140 
 
 
 1 
Chapter 1: Introduction 
 
Throughout the world, millions of people depend partly or fully on both wild and 
managed biological diversity to fulfil their basic subsistence requirements (Cotton, 1996; 
Cunningham, 2001; Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). Among these crucial resources 
are plants, which in developing countries are important in providing rural people with building 
materials, fuel, fibre, medicine and also income (Cunningham, 2001; Shanley and Luz, 2003; Rai 
and Uhl, 2004; Bitariho et al., 2006; Shackleton et al., 2007; Shackleton and Shacleton, 2004; 
Suntherland et al., 2004; Belem et al., 2007; Quang and Anh, 2006). For example, in South 
Africa’s rural areas, as much as 85% of the households depend on non-timber forest products 
(NTFPS), which include wild spinaches, fuel wood, wooden utensils, grass hand-brushes and 
edible fruits to meet their every day needs (Shackleton and Shackleton, 2004). This is also true in 
other developing countries from Africa, Asia and South America, as indicated by the preceding 
literature. 
Besides the consumptive benefits, plants as integral components of ecosystems, 
contribute to the provision of non-consumptive benefits that add to making human life both 
possible and worth living. Some of the ecosystems non-consumptive services include the 
regulation of extreme temperatures, floods, droughts, the forces of wind and the provision of 
recreational, inspirational and educational sites (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005; Diaz 
et al., 2006). Some of these non-consumptive benefits enhance not only human well-being, but 
also contribute to improving their mental health.  
 
1. 1. Importance of plants in traditional healthcare systems  
In almost all cultures, there exists traditional knowledge related to the health of people 
and animals (Hoareau and DaSilva, 1999). For example, the earliest writings from Babylonia, 
Egypt, China and India, with reference to healing herbs, indicate a prehistoric origin for the use 
of plants as medicines. The ancient Egyptians listed more than 850 medicinal plants and 
remedies in the Ebers papirus, which is a medical scroll from about 1500 B.C (Sumner, 2000). 
The Hindu medicinal information, compiled in the Rig Veda (poem), was written about 1500 
B.C. (Sumner, 2000). Today, as much as 80% of the population in developing countries depends 
 2 
on traditional health systems for their basic healthcare needs (WHO/IUCN/WWWF, 1993). 
Besides the heavy dependence in developing countries, complementary or alternative medicine 
(CAM), which is the adaptation of traditional medicine (TM), is spreading in developed 
countries. 
Although, animal and mineral materials are used, medicinal plants play a central role in 
traditional healing practices (WHO/IUCN/WWF, 1993). For example, in southern Africa, where 
the majority of people consult traditional healers for their primary healthcare needs, 
approximately 85% of material used by traditional health practitioners originates from plants 
(McGaw et al., 2005). The remaining 15% consist of animal and mineral material. In china, 
approximately 1000 species of plants are commonly used in Chinese Traditional Medicine 
(CTM) and only 40 items are animal and mineral products (He and Sheng, 1997).  
Relegated for a long time to a marginal place in the healthcare system, especially in 
developing countries, traditional systems of healthcare have undergone a major revival in the last 
20 years. The importance of traditional medicine as source of primary healthcare was first 
officially recognized by the World Health Organization (WHO) in the primary Health Care 
Declaration of Alma Ata in 1978. WHO has described traditional medicine as one of the surest 
means for achieving total healthcare coverage of the world’s population. As a result, WHO 
called African governments in 2003 to formally recognize traditional medicine. Today, an 
increasing number of countries, including China, Mexico, Nigeria and Thailand have 
incorporated traditional medicine into their primary healthcare systems (Balick and Cox, 1997).  
In Africa where the rates of urbanization are the highest, there has been an increase in the 
demand for medicinal plants. This increase in demand, especially in urban centres, has motivated 
not only the migration of traditional health practitioners from rural to urban areas, but also the 
involvement of commercial harvesters in search of income. Unfortunately, as the bulk of traded 
medicinal plant species are wild-harvested, many of these medicinal plant species, due to over-
harvesting, are under extinction threat (Cunningham, 1993).  
 
1. 2. South African informal market for medicinal plants  
Like other developing countries, the majority of South African population relies on 
traditional medicine for their primary healthcare needs. Mander (1998) found that between 
35,000 and 70,000 tons of plant material is consumed by about 27 million of herbal remedy 
 3 
consumers each year. There are as much as 200,000 traditional healers practicing in the country 
(Mander et al., 2006). With urbanization, poverty and unemployment, the demand for medicinal 
plants has considerably increased in urban centres (Cunningham, 1993; Mander, 1998). The 
resulting consequence of this increase in demand has motivated massive involvement of other 
role players such as commercial gatherers and traders. For example, In KwaZulu-Natal, Mander 
(1998) reported between 20,000 and 30,000 people, mainly women, making a living from the 
trade of non-timber forest products, particularly medicinal plants. 
In the past, harvesting of medicinal plants was the domain of trained traditional healers, 
well-known for their skills as herbalists or diviners who respected customary conservation 
practices. Taboos, seasonal and social restrictions, limitation of harvested quantities and the 
nature of plant gathering equipment used served to limit medicinal plant harvesting 
(Cunningham, 1993). Today, however, with the involvement of commercial gatherers, whose 
main objective is to make profit, cases of over-harvesting have been reported and some species 
have become rare, vulnerable, threatened or purely extinct from the wild (Cunningham, 1993; 
Coetzee et al., 1999; Williams et al., 2000; Dold and Cocks, 2002; Afolayan et al., 2004). For 
example, species such as Ocotea bullata, Warburgia salutaris or Boweiea volubilis are reported 
to have become rare. Moreover, Siphonochilus natalensis is extinct from the wild due to active 
trading (Cunningham, 1993). Therefore, documenting the trade of biodiversity in general and 
medicinal plants in particular is the first step in identifying species in need of conservation and 
sustainable management.  
 
1. 3. Problem statement 
Medicinal plant resources are dwindling worldwide. It is believed that habitat destruction 
and unsustainable harvesting practices are the main causes for the loss of medicinal plants 
(WHO/IUCN/WWF, 1993). This is true in most developing countries where the shift from 
subsistence to income generation harvesting has escalated the threats (Mander, 1998; Hoareau et 
al., 1999; Le Breton, 2001; Botha et al., 2004). It is noteworthy that the depletion of medicinal 
plants was first brought into the attention of governments during the 1988 WHO/IUCN/WWF 
International Consultation on Conservation of Medicinal Plants held in Chiang Mai, Thailand. 
One of the recommendations from this consultation was the international cooperation and 
coordination for the establishment of programmes for conservation of medicinal plants to ensure 
 4 
that these resources are available for future generations. For example, an understanding of 
market profiles, species in trade and impact of harvesting on plant species (as well populations), 
social, economic and cultural attributes of role players may contribute to effective resource 
management and conservation. 
To date, most documentation on the trade in medicinal plants in South Africa has been 
undertaken in KwaZulu-Natal (Dauskardt, 1990; Mander, 1998), Gauteng (Williams,1996; 
Williams et al., 1997), Mpumalanga (Dauskardt, 1990; Botha et al., 2004), Limpopo (Botha et 
al., 2004) and the Eastern Cape (Dold and Cocks, 2002) provinces. These studies have revealed 
and documented species in trade, sources of supply, profiled role players and in some cases had 
established the economic value of the trade. The number of species and the quantity of plant 
materials traded are tremendous. For example, in KwaZulu-Natal, about 4,300 tons of medicinal 
plant materials from 400 species were annually consumed by about 6 million indigenous 
medicine consumers (Mander 1998). This trade would have generated an expenditure of some 
R60 million per annum. In the Eastern Cape Province, about 525 tons of plants material from 
166 species of medicinal plants were consumed annually (Dold and Cocks, 2002). This active 
trade was approximately valued at R27 million per year. In Witwatersrand (Gauteng), Williams 
et al. (2000) inventoried 511 species of medicinal plants frequently traded and Botha et al. 
(2004) recorded 176 species in Mpumalanga markets and 70 species in Limpopo medicinal plant 
markets. All these studies have revealed cases of over-exploitation of medicinal plant resources.  
However, the use or the trade of medicinal plants is not only confined to the above 
mentioned provinces. CapeNature Conservation board, one of the organizations in charge of the 
management of biodiversity in the Western Cape Province, has reported illegal commercial 
collections of medicinal plant resources within its protected areas. This research project, 
therefore, intends to investigate and document this trade. 
 
1. 4. Research aim and objectives  
The aim of this study is to document the trade of medicinal plants in The Cape Peninsula. 
Under this aim, the main objectives are to: (i) inventory the most traded/used species of 
medicinal plants; (ii) profile socio-economic attributes of stakeholders and to understand the 
rationales for their involvement in medicinal plants-related activities; and (iii) to assess 
 5 
constraints and opportunities for the conservation of medicinal plant resources in the study area. 
In order to adress these objectives; the following subsidiary research questions are answered: 
Objective (i): the traded/used species of medicinal plants. 
• What are the most traded/used meidinal plant species and parts in the Cape 
Peninsula? 
• Where do species of medicinal plants traded/used in the Cape Peninsula come from? 
• What are the most harvesting seasons and at which frequencies? 
• What is the financial value of medicinal species traded in the Cape Peninsula? 
• What is the conservation status of the traded/used species of medicinal plants in the 
study area? 
Objective (ii): characteristics of the respondents and rationales for their involvement. 
• Which are the predominant gender, age groups and ethnicity categories of the people 
who are involved in medicinal plants-related activities in the Cape Peninsula? 
• What are their educational levels? 
• Where are they from (residence status)? 
• How many dependents do they support? 
• Why are they involved in medicinal plants-related activities? 
Objective (iii): opportunities and constraints for the conservation of medicinal plants in the 
Cape Peninsula. 
• Are medicinal plant traders/users in the Cape Peninsula aware of the dwindling of 
some species of medicinal plants in the wild? 
• What are their perceptions on the dynamics of future demands for medicinal plants? 
• Are stakeholders aware of the conservation status of traded/used medicinal plant 
species? 
• Are there any substitutes for the most traded/used species of medicinal plants? 
• What are medicinal plant traders/users perceptions on cultivated species of medicinal 
plants and cultivation of medicinal plants? 
• What are the constraints, needs and the problems faced by stakeholders in practising 
medicinal plants-related activities in the Cape Peninsula? 
 
 6 
1. 5. Description of the study site 
This study concentrates on the Cape Peninsula and its surrounding (Figure 1), which all 
fall within the Cape Floral Kingdom.  
 
1. 5. 1. Vegetation 
The Cape Floral Kingdom, the smallest of the world’s six floral kingdoms, is the most 
botanically diverse region on earth (highest concentration of plant species in the world). It hosts 
more than 8,500 species of plant, of which about 5,800 (more than 60%) are endemic, within an 
area of less than 90,000 square kilometres (Cowling and Richardson, 1995; Goldblatt and 
Manning, 2000; Wolfart, 2001). More remarkable is that the Cape Peninsula supports about 
2,500 plant species, of which 1,500 are found in Table Mountain within an area of 57 square 
kilometres. Of these plant species, 150 are endemic to the Cape Peninsula area (Cowling and 
Richardson, 1995; Wolfart, 2001). 
The main types of vegetation occurring within the Cape Peninsula include the western 
strandveld, lowland fynbos, renosterveld, mountain fynbos and the afromontane forest (Wolfart, 
2001). Most of the diversity is found in the fynbos (fine-leaved bush), which is the dominant 
vegetation type in the Cape Floral Kingdom. Proteas, ericas, restios and geophytes are the four 
plant types that characterize fynbos. These species grow preferably on the leached and acid 
sandy soils. Mountain fynbos, which covers the largest area, contains the highest number of plant 
species within the Cape Peninsula. Renosterveld, which is related to fynbos, grows on more 
fertile soil and was named after renosterbos (Elitropappus rhinocerotis), which is the most 
prevalent species within this vegetation. Due to its relative fertility, renosterveld soils are more 
suitable to agriculture and today only 5% of its original size remains. The western strandveld, 
which is perceivable along the coast of the peninsula, grows on the alkaline sands of ancient 
marine beds. The dominant bushes and shrubs comprising this vegetation are Cape sumach and 
sand olive trees. The evergreen indigenous afromontane forest grows in ravines and gorges of the 
western, southern and eastern slopes of Table Mountain on poor soils, but enriched in humus. 
Older pioneer species such as yellowwood (Podocarpus latifolius), Cape beech, stinkwood 
(Ocotea bullata), wild peach and saffronwood, have survived extensive timber exploitation by 
the earlier settlers (Wolfart, 2001).  
 
 7 
1. 5. 2. Natural resources management 
Celebrated not only in South Africa, but also internationally for its richness and 
uniqueness, the Cape Floral Kingdom is, however, under threat. At least 1,400 plant species are 
now endangered or close to extinction due to a number of factors (CAPE, 2000). Indiscriminate 
siting of agriculture and urban development, invasive alien plants, unsustainable and over-use of 
resources and climate change are the direct factors threatening the biological diversity of the 
Cape Floral Kingdom, and hence the Cape Peninsula (CAPE, 2000). In response to a request 
from the Government of South Africa for support for conservation on the Cape Peninsula, the 
Global Environmental Facility (GEF) of the United Nations for Environmental Programme 
(UNEP) made a grant of US$12.3 million in 1997. Apart from supporting the establishment of 
the new Table Mountain National Park (formerly known as Cape Peninsula National Park), 
US$1 million of this grant was used to launch the ambitious project called CAPE (Cape Action 
Plan for the Environment, precursor to the Cape Action for People an the Environment). The 
main objective of that project was to prepare a strategic plan for the long term conservation of 
the whole Cape Floral Kingdom. The CAPE commenced in late 1998 and in September 2000 the 
CAPE Strategy was presented to potential funders and passed to various conservation agencies 
such as the CapeNature for implementation (CAPE, 2000).  
In addition to the preceding initiative, several other large conservation planning 
initiatives are currently ongoing in the Western Cape Province of South Africa. These include 
Cape Action for People and Environment (CAPE), Succulent Thicket Ecosystem Programme 
(STEP), Succulent Karoo Environmental Programme (SKEP), Stewardship Programme and so 
on (see WCNCB, 2007). These programmes mainly aim at raising awareness and interest in the 
importance of biodiversity and encourage its integration into land use and decision-making. They 
also intend to expand the existing protected areas through stewardship mechanisms. For 
example, as much of the biodiversity in the Western Cape Province occurs in the threatened and 
highly transformed lowlands (mostly privately-owned), the Stewardship Programme, a joint 
venture between private land-owners and the CapeNature Conservation Board (CapeNature) 
launched in 2003, aims to promote the conservation of remaining vegetation. In this venture, 
land-owners undertake to protect and manage their lands or part of lands according to sound 
conservation management principles. In fact, the CapeNature provides support to the 
implementation of these management plans. These initiatives have resulted in an increase of 
 8 
voluntary protected areas from 11.6% to 12.3% for the last five years. Currently, the overall 
Western Cape Province has 8% of its land area legally secured for the conservation of natural 
resources (WCNBC, 2007).  
Most importantly, the CapeNature, in conjunction with resource users, has elaborated a 
monthly rotational harvesting plan to allow local communities to harvest within its protected 
areas. However, despite this initiative, illegal harvesting of natural resources for subsistence and 
commercial purposes is still occurring within protected areas in the Cape Peninsula. 
 
1. 5. 3. Socio-economic profile of the Western Cape 
In 2001, the population of the Western Cape Province was 4,524,335 million, of which 
53.9% were coloured, 26.7% black African, 18.4% white and 0.9% were of Indian/Asian origin. 
About 64% of the population of the Western Cape Province live in the city of Cape Town 
(Statistics South Africa, 2006). In March 2007, the Western Cape Province had the lowest 
(17.2%) unemployment rate (25.5% nationally), while the Eastern and Northern Cape, the two 
neighbouring provinces, had 25.5% and 26.5%, respectively. Nationally, among ethnic groups, 
black Africans had the highest rate (30.2%) of unemployment, against 19.8% among the 
coloured people, 13.8% among Indians/Asians and only 4.3% among white people. Black 
African women (36.4%) and persons aged 15-24 years (about 50%) were substantially the most 
affected by the unemployment (Statistics South Africa, 2007). This latter trend is also true within 
the Western Cape Province. 
In 2004, 10.5% of workers were employed in the informal sector in the Western Cape, 
which was below the national figure of 22.2%. Both nationally and in the Western Cape, black 
Africans had the highest percentage of workers in the informal sector. Conversely to the national 
figure, where females were dominant in the informal sector, the percentage of males was double 
in the Western Cape Province. Wholesale and retail trade; community, social and personal 
services; and manufacturing employed 60% of workers both nationally and in the Western Cape. 
Nationally and in the Western Cape, persons employed in the informal sector were mainly in the 
wholesale and retail trade, while the percentage of persons employed in the formal sector was 
higher in community, social and personal services. In terms of income, more than 80% of 
workers earned R8,000 or less per month nationally in 2004. More than 80% of domestic 
 9 
workers and 70% of those employed in the informal sector earned less than R1,000 per month 
(Statistics South Africa, 2006). 
It is well established that the Western Cape Province has better access to services than the 
other provinces, including housing, health and educational facilities (Cummins, 2002). In 2001, 
there were only 5.7% of people aged 20 and above who did not attain any formal schooling 
(17.9% for the whole South Africa), while the majority (36.5%) had some secondary schooling 
(Statistics South Africa, 2006). In 2003, there were about 23,891 schools, including pre-primary, 
primary, secondary, intermediate and combined and 55 public hospitals in the province. Eighty-
eight percent of the 1.2 million households in the Western Cape Province were housed in formal 
dwellings in 2004 and 92% of the households used electricity as a source of energy for lighting, 
which is above the national figure of 80.2% (Statistics South Africa, 2006). These above-
mentioned opportunities may have contributed to attract an annual influx of about 48,000 
migrants, mainly from the two neighbouring provinces of the Eastern and Northern Cape 
provinces to the Western Cape Province (Provincial Government of the Western Cape, 2002). 
Indeed, it was found that 60% of the respondents in the current study originated from the 
neighbouring Eastern Cape Province alone. 
 
 10 
 
Figure 1: Location of the study site 
 11 
1. 6. Methodology 
The following section describes the methodology used in gathering data that resulted in 
the findings contained in Capters 3, 4 and 5.  
 
1. 6. 1. First entry and pilot study 
It is noteworthy that the surveying of trading places within the Cape Peninsula and the 
surrounding areas was undertaken in June 2006, after the identification of the key role players in 
the trade of medicinal plants who were mainly found to be street traders, shop traders, collectors 
and traditional healers. During this process, no contact was made with traditional healers and 
collectors. Only few street and shop traders were identified during this process. Thereafter, the 
preliminary questionnaire was constructed. As the structured questionnaire was highly criticised 
for being limited (De Vaus, 1986), the questionnaire used to conduct the present study consisted 
largely of open-end questions.  
With the assistance of the CapeNature Community Outreach Unit, many contacts were 
made, especially with traditional healers and collectors who were mainly Rastafarians (“bush 
doctors”). Many workshops took place within the Cape Peninsula area. In each location, the 
purpose of the study was explained to the informants.  
In July 2006, a pilot study took place in Mbekweni (Paarl). This pilot study involved 10 
Rastafarians who were mainly street trades and collectors and one traditional healer. The 
administration of the questionnaire or the interview with a key informant took approximately 40 
minutes. After testing the questionnaire, the interviewees and researcher worked together to 
improve the questionnaire. Problematic or ambiguous questions were weeded out or rephrased. 
Relevant issues that came out from this pilot study were included in the final open-ended 
questionnaire. These included the access to nature reserves and the obtaining of licence to trade 
on streets. These interactions with stakeholders were very useful in garnering their support for 
this investigation.  
 
1. 6. 2. Data collection 
Data gathering for this investigation was conducted from August 2006 to July 2007. A 
combination of data gathering techniques or triangulation techniques was used. The need to 
achieve objectivity, reliability and validity was the rationale for using triangulation techniques 
 12 
(Babbie et al., 2001; Frankfort-Nachmias and Nachmias, 1996). In fact, in qualitative research, 
data generated from a single method are often denounced as biased (Frankfort-Nachmias and 
Nachmias, 1996). Therefore, the triangulation technique used in this study provided the unique 
opportunity to examine the same information from many angles to improve the legitimacy of the 
outcomes of the investigation. The following sections outline the specific methods used in 
gathering data for this investigation: 
 
Interviews 
Prior to the administration of questionnaire, an appointment was made with the 
concerned research participants. Street and shop traders were interviewed during working hours 
at their premises. Since the majority of street traders were fluent in English, the researcher did 
not need the assistance of an interpreter. However, assistance was sought when it came to 
traditional healers as the majority of them spoke isiXhosa. 
According to their convenience, traditional healers were interviewed either at their home 
(mostly) or during workshops. For those who were interviewed at their practice place, the 
researcher and the interpreters (provided by CapeNature) had to comply with traditional 
practitioner beliefs and rules. For example, the research team had to leave their shoes outside the 
practice room. Pictures of plant species had to be taken with the consent of the stakeholder. 
Some traditional healers, mostly in Grabouw, invited the research team to visit their medicinal 
plant home gardens during this process. For those who chose to be interviewed during pre-
defined workshops, both researcher and the interpreter ensured that the other stakeholders were 
kept away during the interview. This was for the comfort and privacy of the interviewee and also 
to prevent the views of the interviewee from influencing other informants.  
It is worth noting that a workshop involving the researcher and interpreters was held to 
explain the contents of the questionnaire prior to the commencement of the fieldwork. In 
addition, as social science researchers are frequently blamed for not only informing the 
participants on the research question, but also for not affording them an opportunity to decide 
whether or not to contribute to the research (ethical issues) (Beauchamp et al., 1982), a prior 
informed consent was sought from all participants involved in the current study. Despite their 
prior consent, some informants refused to answer certain questions and the research team 
respected their views. 
 13 
Personal observations 
Personal observations allowed legitimizing, rejecting or readjusting information that was 
given by the informants. For example, in some cases there was a divergence between the price of 
the species given by the respondent and that paid by customers in the presence of the researcher. 
The price paid by the customer was often higher and this information was adjusted at the scene. 
Those prices varied also according to the customer’s dress code: smart, ordinary or causal. In 
addition, the researcher’s personal observations provided useful insight into the existing 
relationship between resource users and conservationists. In fact, during workshops, which 
gathered conservationists from CapeNature and local communities, issues of access to protected 
areas were often the main points of discussion raised by resource users.  
 
Literature review 
Relevant literature on the use and trade of medicinal plants worldwide, in Africa and in 
South Africa was assessed to understand the importance and the meaning of medicinal plants in 
the provision of human healthcare needs and income generation. Most importantly, literature 
review was helpful in identifying some species of plants, especially those sourced from other 
provinces of South Africa. 
 
1. 6. 3. Sampling procedure 
 Sampling is the process of selecting observations (informants) who would be interviewed 
in a given study. There are mainly two types of sampling methods in social sciences (Babbie et 
al., 2001): probability sampling and non-probability sampling. Probability sampling is mostly 
used for selecting large and representative samples, while non-probability sampling applies when 
only little or no information exists about the individuals to be surveyed (for example, list of all 
homeless persons).  
 In the Cape Peninsula, records of the the number of traditional healers, collectors and 
traders of medicinal plants are lacking. This lack was observed during the pilot study. Indeed, the 
representatives of traditional healers did not know the number of people practising as traditional 
healers in their respective communities. This also applied to Rastafarians. Moreover, in 
Grabouw, a municipality councillor acknolowdeged the lack of registration record on traditional 
healers. These foregoing constraints necessitated the selection of non-probability sampling 
 14 
method as the most suitable in gathering data for this study. “Snowball” sampling technique was 
particularly used in locating traditional healers and collectors. This technique is used when the 
members of a population are difficult to locate (Babbie et al., 2001). It is implemented by 
collecting data on few individuals of a target population that can be located, and then asking 
those individuals to provide the necessary information to locate other members of their 
community that they might know. On the other hand, as there is only a few number of medicinal 
plants traders in the Cape Peninsula, the majority of them (that is, street or shop traders) who 
were found in the study area were interviewed. However, three medicinal plant traders refused to 
be interviewed for the reasons outlined in the first paragraph of section 6.5. 
 
1. 6. 4. Species identification 
During the survey of trading places, pictures were taken and native species names were 
recorded either in Afrikaans or isiXhosa. Pictures taken were compared and contrasted with those 
in literature on South Africa’s medicinal plants (e.g., vanWyk et al., 2000; Watt and Breyer-
Brandwijk, 1962; Hutchings et al., 1996). Recorded local names were cross-checked with 
relevant literature to find out botanical names. This was done according to the geographic 
provenance of the species, conditions treated and the part used. For the most used species 
harvested within the Western Cape Province, samples were collected with the assistance of 
informants and brought to Kirstenbosch and Cape Vegetation Survey for identification.  
Medicinal plant species were organized according to the frequency of mention by the 
informants. Three lists of species were produced: (1) most traded/used species in the Cape 
Peninsula; (2) Rastafarians’ most traded/used species; and (3) traditional healers’ most used 
species of medicinal plants. The difference in healing practices between traditional healers and 
Rastafarians and the sources of supply of traded/used medicinal plants was the main reason for 
splitting of the main list (1). 
 
1. 6. 5. Data coding and analyzing 
A codebook, describing the locations of variables and attributes composing each variable, 
was constructed. All answers from the questionnaire were converted into either numerical or 
categorical codes according to the similarity of the respondents’ answers (coding process). 
Statistical analyses were performed using Statistica 8. Quantitative data were expressed as mean 
 15 
± standard deviation, percentages and frequencies. As the variables were not normally distributed 
like in most qualitative studies, non-parametric tests were performed to detect any difference 
among variables. These statistical tests included Pearson Chi-square, Mann-Whitney U, Kruskal-
Wallis (generalisation of Mann-Whitney U test) and Spearman r-tests. Pearson Chi-square was 
used to detect differences between categorical variables such as motivation for involvement in 
medicinal plants-related activities and ethnicity. Mann-Whitney U-test helped to compute 
comparisons between one continuous variable with a categorical variable with two attributes 
such as the frequency of harvesting and residence status. Difference between a categorical 
variable with more than two attributes and a continuous variable like the involvement category in 
the trade of medicinal plants and income generated from the trade was detected by using 
Kruskal-Wallis-test. Finally, Spearman r-test was used to compute correlation between two 
continuous variables such as income generated from the trade and the age of the respondent. It is 
worth noting that, as income and age were recorded as interval, transformations were necessary 
prior to performing statistical tests (e.g., <R500, R501-R1000 were transformed into 1 and 2, 
respectively). 
 
1. 7. Significance and contribution of the study 
Local communities’ participation in conservation is now part of most conservation 
agenda and their knowledge on resources management has been acknowledged (Cunningham, 
2001). As a result, biologists have called for an alliance between indigenous people (resource 
users), conservation organizations and the government for a mutual effort to overturn the 
ongoing biodiversity loss (Wild and Mutebi, 1996). Cunningham (2001) is one of the many 
conservationists who has recognized this central role of local people in the effective conservation 
of useful plant species. He has pointed out three main reasons for resource users’ involvement. 
Firstly, the scarcity of useful plants is captured by resource users such as traditional healers, craft 
workers and commercial harvesters long before any conservation biologists could do so. 
Therefore, resource users’ knowledge provides a shortcut, saving time and money, and enables 
biologists to monitor key species. Secondly, dialogue with resource users is crucial for 
developing conservation and management proposals intended to have a successful impact on the 
ground. Finally, a participatory approach enables one to identify different user groups because 
rural communities are likely to be complex networks today than previously when communities 
 16 
were homogenous. Rural communities are often stratified along power, wealth, knowledge and 
gender relationships. Specialist interest groups involved in harvesting a specific resource such as 
medicinal plants can have a direct interest in maintaining this resource and prevent behaviour or 
activities that can compromise the supply in the future. That is why a study of this nature, which 
investigates not only ecological aspects (species in trade/use), but also attempts to understand the 
socio-economic conditions fueling the involvement of stakeholders in the trade/use of medicinal 
plants, is necessary for effective resource management and conservation. 
This study is aimed at contributing knowledge to the little understanding of the trade and 
the use of medicinal plants in the Cape Peninsula. For example, it is expected to reveal species in 
trade and their conservation status, socio-economic profile of stakeholders and opportunities for 
and challenges to the sustainable management of medicinal plants in the Cape Peninsula. The 
investigation intends to provide a list of species in need of an urgent conservation and 
management attention. 
 
1. 8. Thesis structure 
The first chapter gives a background to the research problem, study area and outlines the 
objectives to be addressed. It also highlights the importance of medicinal plants in providing not 
only primary healthcare needs, but also as source of income to rural and urban communities. 
Chapter 2 looks at the global market for medicinal plants, factors leading to the dwindling of 
these crucial natural resources and global initiatives undertaken so far to overturn the ongoing 
depletion of medicinal plants worldwide. 
Chapters 3, 4 and 5 contain the results gathered from the questionnaire that were 
administrated to the 13 surveyed locations in the study area. More specifically, chapter 3 gives 
an overview of the most traded/used medicinal plants in the Cape Peninsula. Parts of plant used, 
sourcing regions, harvesting frequencies and seasons, financial value of traded species and their 
conservation status are dealt with in this chapter. The observed results are discussed with 
consistent trends in medicinal plant trade observed in other regions of the world as well as in 
South Africa. Chapter 4 deals with social, cultural and economic attributes of stakeholders that 
influence the trade and also justify their involvement in medicinal plants. Similarly, the results 
are discussed as in the preceding Chapter 3. Constraints and opportunities for the sustainable 
management of medicinal plants in the Cape Peninsula are presented and discussed in Chapter 5. 
 17 
Finally, Chapter 6 brings together all the findings of the investigation and ends by making some 
recommendations to target conservation organizations, local government and also resource users 
in the Cape Peninsula and surrounding areas. 
 18 
Chapter 2: Medicinal plants trade, threats and approaches to conservation 
 
2. 1. Introduction 
Historically used as raw materials in traditional medicine systems, especially by 
traditional health practitioners, medicinal plants have entered the formal and informal markets 
worldwide (Cunningham, 1993; Laird, 1999; Bussmann et al., 2007; Van de Kop et al., 2006; 
Lange, 2006; Hamilton, 2004). Medicinal and aromatic plants are increasingly being used in 
pharmaceutical and natural resource based-product industries for the manufacture of drugs and 
other commodities (Laird, 1999). The informal market is also growing and more and more 
stakeholders are attracted (Mander, 1998). A number of commercial harvesters, mostly 
unemployed and from poor social strata, are generating income from the informal trade of 
medicinal plants. However, in both formal and informal markets, the bulk of traded material is 
sourced unsustainably from wild stocks (Kuipers, 1997; Laird, 2005). This unsustainability, 
combined with the expanding local and international market put not only medicinal plant species 
at risk of extinction, but also healthcare and economies of most vulnerable people (Hoareau and 
DaSilva, 1999; Hamilton, 2005). 
The aim of this second chapter is to review: (i) the global market of medicinal and 
aromatic plants; (ii) the driving factors leading to medicinal plant loss and/or depletion; and (iii) 
to explore opportunities for the sustainable management of medicinal plants. 
 
2. 2. The pharmaceutical industry 
It is well established that biological diversity has played and continues to play an 
important role in the pharmaceutical industry. However, the market size, trade volumes and 
values, plants used and their production, ecological and socio-economic impacts of the trade, 
remain poorly documented (Laird and Kate, 1999). Volumes of medicinal and aromatic plants 
(MAPs) material on global market are difficult to quantify due to the lack of records and 
informal character of the trade, especially in developing countries. This lack of transparency 
often makes it difficult to identify the source countries, mostly in the herbal medicine industry. 
Nevertheless, in some regions, such as Europe, USA, China and India, the trade is organized and 
some figures are available. 
 19 
Despite the inconsistency of market figures in literature, mostly due to the valuation 
methodology used by the authors (Kumar, 2004), the general trends show an important growth in 
value for the pharmaceutical industry. For example, in 1998, annual global sales of medicinal 
drugs were about US$300 billion (IMS Health, 2007). This estimate included sales of natural 
product-derived drugs, semi-synthetic and synthetic drugs. However, the financial value of drugs 
from natural origin is problematic and varies from one author to another (Laird and Kate, 1999). 
In 1976, for example, the market of plant-derived drugs was estimated at US$5 billion of global 
pharmaceutical sales. A few years later, this estimate increased to US$8-20 billion per year 
(Laird and Kate, 1999). With the growing global demand, these figures may have changed. An 
illustration of this growth is given in Table 2a.  
 
Table 2a: Global pharmaceutical sales, 1997-2004 
Global Sales US$B 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 
Total world market  $289 $297 $332 $357 $387 $426 $493 $550* 
Growth over previous year  7% 11% 10% 12% 9% 10% 7% 
*Source: IMS Health Global Pharma Forecast (includes IMS Audited and Unaudited Markets). All information was 
current as of February 15, 2005. 
 
The market structure for pharmaceuticals has been divided into five major blocks by the 
International Medical Statistics (IMS)1 Health (Table 2b). These blocks consist of North 
America, Europe, Latin America, Japan, Asia (excluding Japan) and Australia and Africa. North 
America (USA and Canada), Europe and Japan are considered as the major market for 
pharmaceuticals. In 2005, these regions accounted for 88% of audited worldwide pharmaceutical 
sales. Asia and Africa and Australia, and Latin America accounted respectively for 8.2% and 
4.2% of global sales for the same year.  
                                                 
1 IMS is the world’s leading provider of market intelligence to the pharmaceutical and healthcare industries. With 
more than 50 years of industry experience, IMS operates in more than 100 countries. 
 20 
Table 2b: Global pharmaceutical sales by region, 2005 
World audited market 2005 sales (US$ B) % Global sales % Growth Year-over-
Year (Constant $) 
North America 265.7 47.0 5.2 
Europe 169.5 30.0 7.1 
Japan 60.3 10.7 6.8 
Asia, Africa and Australia 46.4 8.2 11.0 
Latin America 24.0 4.2 18.5 
Total IMS Audited* 565.9 100% 6.9% 
Source: IMS MIDAS®, MAT Dec 2005. All information was current as of February 27, 2006. 
*Excludes unaudited markets. Sales cover direct and indirect pharmaceutical channel purchase in U.S. dollars from 
pharmaceutical wholesalers and manufacturers. The figures above include prescription and certain over-the-counter 
data and represent manufacturer prices. Totals may not add due to rounding. 
 
The US market remains by far the most important. The projected sales for the North 
American block (USA and Canada) for the year 2006 were estimated at US$340.15 billion. The 
US market alone accounted for US$330 billion. Japan, the second largest international market 
was forecast to grow 5-6%. In Europe, the five leading markets (France, Germany, the UK, Italy 
and Spain) combined were projected to grow 3-4%, mostly due to the increased demand from an 
ageing population. In emerging countries such as China and India, markets were projected to 
grow more than 10% for the same year (2006). The high growth of China and India is explained 
by their expanding economies and broader access to medications, which is stimulated by the 
abundance of generics (IMS Health, 2007). The major companies involved in the discovery and 
development of drugs are from the Western world. In 2004, for example, the top 20 
pharmaceutical companies were from seven industrialized countries and accounted for about 
60% (US$332.7 billion) of the US$550 billion global annual sales (Busch and Kern, 2005). 
Among these companies, 10 were from USA, seven from Europe and three from Japan (See 
Busch and Kern, 2005). 
 
2. 3. Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) industry 
By contrast to pharmaceutical drugs, often made of a single isolated active compound, 
botanical medicines are produced from whole plant materials and contain a large number of 
constituents and active ingredients believed to work in synergy (Laird, 1999). This industry 
consists mainly of phytomedicines (the amount of active chemical compounds is specified), 
 21 
herbal remedies (no specification), nutraceuticals (food ingredients or products that are 
consumed for their therapeutic benefit) and cosmeceuticals (cosmetic and personal care products 
that are used for their therapeutic benefits). Depending on the level of processing, 
herbal/botanical medicines are sold in various forms. These include capsules, tablets, herbal teas, 
extracts, tinctures, dried and fresh herbs. 
 
2. 3. 1. Overview of the international market for medicinal and aromatic plants 
The international market for botanical medicines is vast and complex. Many small and 
medium-sized companies take part in this industry. The complexity of this industry makes data 
on sales difficult to analyse. Some companies do not even share data on sales and others do not 
even record sales (Laird, 1999). In addition, many terms are used to designate products derived 
from plants (nutraceuticals, dietary supplement, vitamins, phytomedicines, herbal remedies, raw 
botanical material, bulk ingredients, health food and natural food). This diversity of terms makes 
the comparison across regions, as well as studies difficult (Laird, 1999). 
During the period 1991-2003, an annual average of 467,000 tons of medicinal and 
aromatic plants, valued at US$1.2 billion was exported globally (Lange, 2006). Like for the 
pharmaceutical industry, few countries dominate the global trade. Eighty percent of annual 
global import and export were allotted to only 12 countries (Table 2c), with temperate Asian 
countries accounting for 41% and 48% of annual global imports and exports, respectively.  
Regarding single countries, Hong Kong was the highest importing country with an annual 
import of 59,950 tons. It was followed by the United States of America (51,200 tons), Japan 
(46,450 tons) and Germany (44,750 tons). On the export side, China was by far the leading 
exporter with an annual global export of 1,550,600 tons. It was followed by Hong Kong, India, 
Mexico and Germany. Egypt and Morocco were the leading African exporter countries with 
11,800 tons and 8,500 tons, respectively. 
 22 
Table 2c The 12-leading medicinal and aromatic plant importing and exporting countries 
Country of 
import 
Quantity 
[tonnes] 
Value 
[US$] 
Country of 
export 
Quantity 
[tonnes] 
Value 
[US$] 
Hong Kong 59,950 263,484,200 China 150,600 266,038,500 
USA 51,200 139,379,500 Hong Kong 55,000 201,021,200 
Japan 46,450 131,031,500 India 40,400 61,665,500 
Germany 44,750 104,457,200 Mexico 37,600 14,257,500 
Rep. Korea 33,500 49,889,200 Germany 15,100 68,243,200 
France 21,800 51,975,000 USA 13,050 104,572,000 
China 15,550 41,602,800 Egypt 11,800 13,476,000 
Italy 11,950 43,006,600 Bulgaria 10,300 14,355,500 
Pakistan 10,650 9,813,800 Chile 9,850 26,352,000 
Spain 9,850 27,648,300 Morocco 8,500 13,685,400 
UK 7,950 29,551,000 Albania 8,050 11,693,300 
Malaysia 7,050 38,685,400 Singapore 7,950 52,620,700 
Total 320,550 930,524,400 Total 368,100 847,980,800 
Source: Lange, 2006. 
For the same period 1999-2003, the USA, Germany and Hong Kong were the three main 
trading centres (and may still be today). All these three countries showed both high import and 
export quantities. In the North American region, the USA acted as the main trade centre. India, 
China, Azerbaijan, Mexico and Egypt were the main suppliers of the USA. In contrast to import, 
44% export was allotted to American countries: 26% Canada; 7% to Mexico and 10% to South 
American countries. Other important export market for the USA included Germany (17%), 
Republic of Korea (12.5%) and Japan (10%). Germany imported its raw materials from at least 
142 countries and exported them to 147 countries. Bulgaria acted as its most important supplier, 
while Austria was the most important buyer. Hong Kong, the third most important global centre, 
imported 80-90% of its raw material from China and 86% of its exports were destined to 
Southeast-Asian countries (Lange, 2006). 
 
2. 3. 2. Number of species in trade and means of supply 
Similar to other domain of this industry, there is no reliable information on the exact 
number of species in trade. For example, there are no or only few reliable trade data on the 
number of species used worldwide in areas like cosmetics, beverages, or aromas (Lange, 2004). 
However, it is estimated that between 70,000 and 72,000 species are used in folk and modern 
 23 
medicines worldwide (Farnsworth and Soejarto, 1991; Schippmann et al., 2006)). In India, for 
example, over 8,000 plant species are reported to be in use in both traditional and modern 
medicine (Van De Kop et al., 2006). Among the 2,000 medicinal and aromatic plants available 
in European market, 1,543 are available in German market. Based on the importance of Europe 
as a sink for medicinal plants traded from all regions of the world, it has been estimated that 
3,000 species are in trade worldwide (Schippmann et al., 2006).  
It is well established that the bulk of medicinal and aromatic plants is harvested from the 
wild populations (Kuispers, 1997). In Germany, for example, among the 1,543 species in trade, 
only 50-100 are under cultivation (Schippmann et al., 2006). In China, where about 5,000 
species are used for medicinal purposes, only 100-250 of the 1000 commonly traded/used are 
under cultivation (He and Sheng, 1997). This prevalence of wild collection is also occurring in 
other countries worldwide (WHO/IUCN/WWF, 1993). Regrettably, with the increasing 
international demand, combined with expanding local and regional markets, many medicinal and 
aromatic plant species are facing extinction threat. In line with this, Schippmann and others 
(2006) estimated about 15,000 of the 72,000 medicinal plants in use to be threatened at least to 
some degree.  
 
2. 4. Overview of the southern African botanical industry 
Southern African flora is well known for it diversity richness and endemism. Over 22,000 
native and 900 naturalised plant species are found within this region encompassing South Africa, 
Namibia, Botswana, Swaziland and Lesotho (McGaw et al., 2005). This flora, contributing to 
10% of the earth’s flora, is believed to harbour the highest concentration of threatened plants in 
the world (Marshall, 1998). Approximately 4,000 species are used for medicinal purposes and 
some of these species are threatened by over-harvesting (Arnold et al., 2000; McGaw, 2005). 
Despite the lack of statistics in some countries within the region, it is believed that trends 
observed in South Africa are similar to other countries of the region (McGaw et al., 2005). The 
industry for therapeutic plants in the region is divided into two market systems: the informal and 
the formal markets. The informal market consists of 400,000 to 500,000 traditional healers, 
which dispense herbal remedies to a market that constitutes between 50 and 100 million 
consumers. Between 35,000 and 70,000 tons of plant materials, valued at between US$75 and 
US$150 million, are consumed annually. Over 1,000 species are actively traded in the region and 
 24 
several hundred thousands of people generate income from this informal industry (Mander and 
Le Breton, 2005; Mander and Le Breton, 2006). 
The formal market, valued at US$25 million, exports between 5,000 and 10,000 tons of 
material from the region. About 50 species are actively traded in the formal market (Mander and 
Le Breton, 2005; Mander and Le Breton, 2006). This market is divided into two components. 
The first component comprises local consumers, with high income, who tend to buy finished 
products. The second consists of export buyers, who prefer raw or value-added ingredients for 
onward sale to manufacturers and processors located in developed countries. The local market is 
mostly dominated by exotic species such as Echinacea, ginseng and St John’s Wort. However, 
indigenous species such as Cancer bush (Sutherlandia frutescens), Geranium (Pelargonium 
spp.), African potato (Hypoxis Hemerocallidea) and some herbal teas, including Rooibos 
(Aspalathus linearis), Buchu (Agathosma crenulata, A. betuilna) and Honey-bush (cyclopia spp.) 
have started supplying this market. The export market is dominated by species with long history 
of use such as the Devil’s Claw (800 tons per year) and Aloe (700 tons per year). Other species 
such as, Hoodia (Hoodia gordonii) and Baobab (Adansonia digitata), Marula (Scleorocarya 
birrea) and Kalahari melon (Citrus lanatus) are exported to nutraceuticals and cosmeceuticals 
industries.  
Several factors explain the steady growth of both local informal and formal markets. 
First, the local informal market for therapeutic plants is fuelled by the cultural significance of 
traditional medicine and HIV/AIDS pandemic, which is high in the region and responsible for 
increasing the use of species believed to boost immune system such as African potato. The 
export markets follow the global trends towards alternative medicine (Mander and Le Breton, 
2005). 
 
2. 5. Main drivers for medicinal plant species loss 
 The following section addresses factors and activities that lead to the loss of biodiversity, 
especially medicinal plant resources 
 
2. 5. 1. Habitat degradation and land transformation 
The most important threat to the earth’s biodiversity loss is habitat transformation and 
degradation by anthropogenic activities. It is now being established that the distribution of 
 25 
species on the earth is becoming homogenous (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). One 
of the ways of doing so is the conversion of natural habitats with few human selected crop 
species. This conversion of natural habitat by few selected crops has reduced the availability of 
other resources such as medicinal plants. Currently, cultivated systems (crop production, shifting 
cultivation, livestock production and freshwater aquaculture), cover one quarter of the earth’s 
terrestrial surface (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). In South Africa, cultivation, 
grazing, urban development, afforestation, mining, dams and alien species are the main threats to 
biodiversity (Wynberg, 2002). An estimate of 16.5% of South African’s land cover is 
transformed and a further 10.1% is degraded (Reyers et al., 2001). Cultivation is the largest 
threat with coverage of 12.2% of South African land (Fairbanks et al., 2000). Fynbos biome, 
which harbours many medicinal plant species, accounts for 30% of transformed and degraded 
lands (Fairbanks et al., 2000). In the Eastern Amazonian forests, logging is the main cause of 
changes in forest composition and structure. These changes have affected the availability of 
medicinal plants as well as other economic plants on which indigenous communities depend 
(Shanley and Luz, 2003). 
 
2. 5. 2. Population growth, unemployment and poverty  
A high population growth often leads to increased demand for natural resources, 
including medicinal plants. In Africa, where the growth rate is 5.1% per annum, up to 80% of the 
population make use of traditional medical health systems regardless of their income and 
educational level (WHO, 2006; Cunningham, 1993). With a high unemployment rate, combined 
with an inadequate provision of modern health facilities, traditional health systems are often the 
only option to the majority of poor people. In South Africa’s homeland areas, for example, the 
ratio of medical doctor to total patient is 1:17,400. On the other side, traditional healer to patient 
ratio is 1:700-1,200. In the Kwahu District in Ghana, for every western medicine doctor there are 
21,000 people, compared to one traditional practitioner for 224 people (Hamilton, 2004; 
Rukangira, 2004). Thus, there is no doubt of the role of traditional practitioners in the provision 
of primary healthcare. 
In addition, traditional healers are no longer the only harvesters of plants. Commercial 
gatherers have entered the informal medicinal plant industry. Increasing demand in local and 
international market leads to the increase of collectors as well as wild harvested quantities. Ring-
 26 
barking, uprooting or cutting down whole plants, which are unsustainable and destructive 
methods, are common methods with commercial harvesters whose main aim is income 
generation. In KwaZulu-Natal, up to 3,000 people, mostly women, derive an income exclusively 
from trading medicinal plants (Mander, 1998). It is worth noting that although the medicinal 
plant industry plays an important role in empowering a large number of poor people, the increase 
in number of role players and quantities harvested may result in the depletion of natural assets 
and subsequent problems for primary healthcare. 
 
2. 5. 3. Decline of customary controls 
Local knowledge on the use of the species is declining and has been already lost in some 
communities. In the past, the sustainable use of medicinal plants was facilitated by inadvertent 
controls and some intentional conservation practices (Cunningham, 1993). Pressure on medicinal 
plant resources was regulated through taboos, seasonal and social restrictions, protection at 
graves and the nature of equipment used to harvest the plants. For example, in South Africa and 
Swaziland, menstruating women were not allowed to collect medicinal plants. This was believed 
to reduce the healing power of the plants (Cunningham, 1993). Women practised as diviners, 
while men as herbalists. This reduced the number of collectors. Conversely, today, many women 
are involved in the collection and trade of medicinal plants (Mander, 1998).  
Protection of vegetation at grave sites, religious beliefs and seasonal restrictions on 
collection were common intentional regulation strategies. Species such as Alepidea amatymbica, 
Siphonochilus aethiopicus and Agapanthus umbellatus were harvested only in the summer 
months in Swaziland and South Africa (Cunningham, 1993). Today, Alepidea amatymbica is 
among the most commonly available species in Umuthi shops (shops selling medicinal plants) at 
Witwatersrand market (Williams et al., 2000).  
 
2. 6. Approaches to medicinal plant conservation 
 In response to the declining of medicinal plant resources, governments, non-govermental 
organizations and other stakeholders, through the world, took some initiatives to overturn the 
over-exploitation of medicinal plant resources. This section deals with these worldwide 
initiatives.  
 
 27 
2. 6. 1. Global biodiversity conservation initiatives 
Presentely, most literature has recognized that biological diversity, including species, 
ecosystems and genes, is under threat (Hamilton, 2005; Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 
2005). The loss of species has always occurred as a natural phenomenon, but the pace of 
extinction has accelerated dramatically as a result of human activity. This irreversible extinction 
crisis is believed to be greater than the natural disaster that wiped out the dinosaurs 65 million 
years ago (CBD, 2000). Given our dependence on biodiversity, especially rural communities, a 
number of initiatives have been taken to achieve conservation and sustainable use of natural 
resources. Among these is the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). This convention 
addresses specifically the ecological, socio-economic and equity as the basis for conservation 
and sustainable use of biodiversity (CBD, 1992). 
Focusing on medicinal plants, the 1993 WHO/IUCN/WWF Guidelines on the 
Conservation of Medicinal Plants (WHO/IUCN/WWF, 1993) and the 2003 WHO Guidelines on 
Good Agricultural and Collection Practices (GACP) for Medicinal Plants (WHO, 2003) provide 
general guidance and principles for the sustainable use of medicinal and aromatic plants. 
Governments, medicinal plant industries and other stakeholders, including collectors are 
provided with specific guidance on sustainable harvesting practices. For example, governments 
are required to: 
square4 regulate the collection of medicinal plants from the wild by imposing permits for the 
commercial collection of certain named plants that are believed to be in danger; 
square4 take into account the part of the plant used, the capacity of the plants to regenerate after 
harvesting and the harvesting practices; 
square4 wherever possible, any collection should be done by trained people, adopting good 
management and a rotation system, and suitably supervised;  
square4 respect the ethical, legal and social interest of all stakeholders while conceiving 
regulation frameworks; 
square4 prohibit the collection from the wild of threatened medicinal plants, their possession and 
trade, except for propagation purposes; 
square4 prohibit land-owners from collecting threatened species on their land; 
square4 provide traditional health practitioners with alternative species with similar active 
compounds, when a species is banned; and 
 28 
square4 to control trade in medicinal plants and their products, especially internationally, by 
making use of the appendices of Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species 
(WHO/IUCN/WWF, 1993). 
In addition, governments are requested to encourage the cultivation of medicinal plants, 
especially rare, endangered and overexploited species. Protected area managers are requested, in 
conjunction with local communities, to develop management plans that simultaneously allow the 
conservation and the utilization of medicinal plants by local people within protected area 
boundaries. Although considered out of date, the 1993 guidelines is the only document 
addressing the ecological and socio-economic issues related to the conservation and sustainable 
wild harvesting of medicinal plants.  
 
2. 6. 2. Medicinal plant cultivation 
To supply the expanding local and international markets, cultivation is believed to be the 
best source of supply. However, to date, the bulk of medicinal plants traded or used in traditional 
medicine systems worldwide is sourced from wild stocks (Kuipers, 1997). For example, in 1994, 
where the demand for medicinal plants in China was 1,600,000 tons, the output of cultivated 
material was between 300,000 to 400,000 tons. This gap would be made up from wild harvested 
material (Kuipers, 1997). Yet, among the 1,543 species of medicinal and aromatic plants traded 
in Germany, only 50-100 are exclusively sourced from cultivation (Schippmann et al., 2006). 
Based on certain available figures, Schippmann et al. (2006) concluded that medicinal and 
aromatic plants under cultivation worldwide are less than 1% of the total plants used. 
The emerging question one may ask is “Why are so few species cultivated and so many 
others are not”? One of the answers would be based on cultural considerations. Cultivated 
species are sometimes considered qualitatively inferior to wild harvested species. For example, 
in a survey undertaken in the Amatola region of South Africa, on the perception on cultivated 
species, 24% of the respondents felt that cultivated species were less effective than wild ones 
(Wiersum et al., 2006). In Botswana, traditional medicine practitioners reported that cultivated 
material lack power and was unacceptable (Cunningham, 1993). Interestingly, scientific studies 
partially support these cultural beliefs. In line with this, He and Sheng (1997) found a difference 
in chemical constituents of A. lancea collected from four different sites in Jiangsu Province in 
China. Schippmann and colleagues (2006) argued that, “medicinal properties in plants are mainly 
 29 
due to the presence of secondary metabolites which the plants need in their natural environment 
under particular conditions of stress and competition and which perhaps would not be expressed 
under monoculture conditions”. However, cultivation has pharmacological advantages compared 
with wild collection. Wild collection plants vary in quality and composition, due to 
environmental and genetic differences (WHO/IUCN/WWF, 1993). Under cultivation, this 
variation is reduced since the plants can be grown in a medium with similar climate and soil. 
Furthermore, the plants can be harvested at the right time. 
In terms of the market, cultivation provides a number of advantages over wild collection 
of medicinal plants: 
square4 wild collection often offers adulterated material, sometimes harmful, cultivation on the 
contrary provides reliable botanical identification; 
square4 wild collection provides variable volumes and an irregularity of supply, cultivation 
guarantees a steady supply; 
square4 wholesalers and pharmaceutical companies can agree on volumes and prices over time 
with growers; and 
square4 cultivation allows controlled post-harvest handling, quality control and the product 
standards can be adjusted to international regulations and consumer preferences 
(Schippmann et al., 2006). 
 
Despite these advantages, cultivation is not always technically feasible. Biological and 
ecological requirements (such as slow growth rate, soil requirement, interactions with pollinators 
and other species, low germination rates and susceptibility to pests) are difficult to meet. These 
biological and ecological requirements, combined with social factors affect the economic 
viability of medicinal plant cultivation (Schippmann et al., 2006). Therefore, sustainable 
harvesting from wild stocks is recommended as the best option, especially when cultivation is 
not possible, for long-term benefit for the environment, healthcare and economies (Hamilton, 
2005). However, the realization of sustainable collection of wild resources is also facing both 
anthropogenic and ecological challenges. Indeed, knowledge about sustainable harvest rates and 
practices is lacking for most of the wild harvested plant species (Schippmann et al., 2005). In 
some instances, access to natural resources is often open to everyone. This open-access nature of 
property makes it difficult to implement and monitor some sustainable harvesting strategies such 
 30 
as annual harvest quotas, seasonal or geographical restrictions and restrictions of harvest to 
particular plant parts or size. Thus, apart from overcoming resources knowledge deficit, strong 
resource tenure and the provision of resource users with the required harvesting skills, are some 
of the pre-requisites for the effective sustainable supply of resources from wild stocks 
(Schippmann et al., 2005; Hamilton et al., 2006). 
 
2.7. Concluding remark 
 Medicinal plants represent an important asset not only in providing primary health care, 
but also in providing income to rural and urban poor communities, herbal and pharmaceutical 
industries, as shown throught the above literature. However, although habitat transformation is 
pointed out as the main driver of biodiversity loss, including medicinal plants, population growth 
socio-economic conditions and the decline of customary controls contribute also to the dwindling 
of medicinal plant resources. Documenting the trade/use of medicinal plants, understanding the 
socio-economic conditions of resource users and their perceptions on cultivated species are 
believed to be the starting point for the sustainable management of medicinal plants. 
 
 31 
Chapter 3: Overview of medicinal plants traded/used in the Cape Peninsula 
 
3. 1. Introduction 
Apart from being the main ingredients in traditional medicine, medicinal plants are 
increasingly being harvested for economic purposes. Harvesting from the wild, which is the main 
source of medicinal plants, is causing depletion and extinction of wild stock populations 
(Cunningham, 1993; Hoareau and DaSilva, 1999; Schippmann et al., 2005; Dold and Cocks, 
2002). For example, economic harvesting has depleted populations of Ocotea bullata, Curtisia 
dentata and Warburgia salutaris from southern African forests and also eradicated the wild 
populations of Monanthotaxis capea in Ivory Coast (Cunningham, 1993; Geldenhuys, 2004). 
Accordingly, apart from sustaining harvest levels from the wild populations, domestication and 
cultivation have been proposed as alternatives to overturn further losses and also to sustain the 
increasing demand for medicinal plants (Cunningham 1993; WHO/IUCN/WWF, 1993; 
Geldenhuys, 2004; Canter et al., 2005; Keirungi and Fabricius, 2005; Schippmann et al., 2006; 
Wiersum et al., 2006).  
However, the implementation of these alternatives is constrained by the documentation of 
markets. One of the ways for documenting the trade of natural resources is through 
ethnobotanical surveys. The survey of market places, harvesting places and households provides 
valuable information relating not only to species in trade/use, but also species’ geographical 
distribution, impact of harvesting on target species and resource users identification 
(Cunningham, 2001; Hamilton, 2005). Only after assessing trading places that priority species, 
those in need for management and conservation attention, are accurately identified. 
Consequently, this chapter attempts to document the trade of medicinal plants in the Cape 
Peninsula. Research questions relevant to adresssing this first objective of the study are: (1) 
What are the most traded/used species of medicinal plant in the study area and for which parts 
are they traded? (2) Where are the source regions for these traded/used species of medicinal 
plants? (3) What are the frequencies and seasons of harvesting? (4) What is the financial value of 
these species of medicinal plants? (5) Finally, what is the conservation status of the traded/used 
species of medicinal plants? These research questions were tackled by interviewing street 
traders, shop traders, collectors and traditional healers at trading and practice places. The 
 32 
methodology used in gathering data to adresss these reaserch questions is described in Chapter 
One, section 1.6.  
 
3. 2. Results 
The outcomes of this investigation are presented in the following sub-sections under 
various forms, including tables, graphics and pictures. The most traded/used species are ranked 
according to the frequency of mention. Sourcing regions for material sold/used, frequencies of 
harvesting and harvesting seasons are presented in histograms alongwith their percentages. 
Prices for pecies are computed with their means, standard deviations, medians, modes, minimum 
and maximum values. 
 
3. 2. 1. The plants traded/used 
Despite the difficulty of acquiring good quality specimen, especially for species 
originating outside the study area, 75% of the 167 inventoried species were accurately identified. 
As the respondents were only asked to nominate the 10 most frequently traded/used species, the 
exact number of medicinal plants traded in the Cape Peninsula might therefore be higher than the 
reported figure. The 86 most commonly traded/used species of medicinal plants, which were 
mentioned by at least two respondents, are listed in Table 3a. Table 3a also shows that species 
from Helichrysum genus are the most traded/used species in the Cape Peninsula. Among this 
genus, Helichrysium petiolare (Picture 1) was the most traded species. These most commonly 
traded/used species are followed by Agathosma spp. (Picture 2), Tulbaghia spp. (Picture 3), 
Hypoxis spp. (Picture 4), Alepidea spp. (Picture 6) and some members of the Family 
Asphodelaceae such as Aloe rupestris (Picture 5).  
Several distinct botanical species were undifferentiated among the informants. For 
example, Agathosma betulina and Agathosma crenulata were both commonly known as Boegoe 
or Buchu. Similarly, Aloe spp., Haworthia attenuate, Gasteria bicolour and Gasteria croucheri 
were all known as Intelezi, Ikhala or Aloe (Tab. 3a).  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 33 
Table 3a: Cape Peninsula’s most traded/used medicinal plants in order of frequency* 
 
No. Fre- 
quency 
Vernacular/common name  Botanical name Part (s) used 
1 75 Kooigoed; hotnots-kooigoed; 
impepho 
Helichrysum spp. 
 
Leaf & stem 
2 56 Boegoe; Buchu Agathosma betulina; A. crenulata Leaf & stem 
3 45 Wild garlic; Umwelela; 
Isivimbampunzi 
Tulbaghia violacea; T. alliacea Rhizome 
 
4 43 African potato; iNongwe; 
iNkomfe; iLabatheka 
Hypoxis hemerocallidea; 
H. colchicifolia 
Corm 
 
5 38 Intelezi; ikhala; aloe 
 
Aloe ferox; A. perfoliata; 
A. plicatelis; A. rupestris 
Haworthia attenuata; Gasteria 
bicolor; G. croucheri 
Leaf; whole  
 
6 26 Kalmoes; iqwili 
 
Alepidea amatymbica;  
A. delicatula 
Rhizome; root 
7 26 David root; Mayisake; 
Dawidjiewortel 
Cissampelos capensis 
 
Root 
 
8 24 
 
Cancer bush; Kanker bossie; 
keurkie 
Sutherlandia frutescens Leaf & stem 
9 23 Bitterbos Chironia baccifera Leaf & stem 
10 22 Rooiwortel; red carot Bulbine latifolia Rhizome 
11 21 Umhlonyana; Wilde als Artemisia afra Whole  
12 21 chithibunga  Rhoicissus spp. Tuber 
13 20 uMathunga 
 
Haemanthus albiflos 
H. sanguineus 
Bulb 
 
14 16 Bergselery; wild selery Peucedanum galbanum Leaf & stem 
15 15 Bloekom Eucalyptus spp. Leaf 
16 14 uMaphipha Rapanea melanophloes Bark 
17 13 isilawu Behnia reticulata Root 
18 13 Ysterhoutoppe Dodonaea angustifolia Leaf & stem 
19 13 Roosmaryn Rosmarinus officinalis Leaf 
20 13 Bitter patat Sanseviera aethiopica Tuber 
21 12 Bloublomsalie; Salie 
 
Salvia africana-caerulea;  
Buddleja salviifolia 
Leaf & stem 
22 12 Lavender Lavandula angustifolia Leaf & stem 
23 10 umredeni Drimia elata Bulb 
24 10 Perdepis; ulathile Hippobromus pauciflorus Leaf & stem 
25 10 Wilde dagga; klipdagga Leonotis leonurus Leaf & stem 
26 10 Soethout wortel; sweet root Rafnia amplexicaulis Root 
27 9 Moer bos Aristea africana Whole  
28 9 Skilpad; isikolipati; ufudu Dioscorea sylvatica Tuber 
29 9 umvuthuza Knowltonia bracteata Whole  
                                                 
*Frequency refers to the number of respondents who mentioned the plant species among their top 10 most 
commonly traded/used plant species. 
 
 34 
Table 3a continued 
 
30 9 umnonono; umnono Strychnos spp. Bark 
31 8 inqwebeba; white onion Albuca setosa Bulb 
32 8 Renosterbos(sie) 
 
Elytropappus rhinocerotis; 
Anthospermum spp.? Aspalathus 
spp.? 
Leaf & stem 
 
33 8 Ag-dae-genees-bos Lobostemon fruticosus Leaf & stem 
34 8 icimamlilo Pentanisia prunelloides Root 
35 7 umagaqana Bowiea volubilis Bulb 
36 7 uroselina Cinnamomum camphora Bark; leaf 
37 7 Kruisement Mentha longifolia Leaf & stem  
38 7 umkhwenkwe Pittorporum viridiflorum Bark 
39 7 itshongwe Pachycarpus concolor Root 
40 6 Slang blaar Acokanthera oppositifolia Leaf 
41 6 Karmadik Cnicus benedictus Whole 
42 6 velabahleke  Cyrtanthus mackenii Bulb 
43 6 Tiemie Helychrisum spp. Leaf & stem 
44 6 umjelo; ujelo Rauvolfia caffra Bark 
45 5 Wildewingerd Cliffortia odorata Leaf 
46 5 Kaneelbol; kaneeltjies Eriospermum lanceolatum;  
Pelargonium triste 
Tuber 
 
47 5 Kruidjie-roer-my-nie Melianthus major Leaf 
 5 Voelent Viscum capense Stem 
48 5 umthuma Solanum spp. Fruit; root 
49 4 mlahleni  Curtisia dentata Root; bark 
50 4 Red onion Drimia spp. Bulb 
51 4 iphuzi Gunnera perpensa Root 
52 4 ixonya Kniphofia uvaria Root 
53 4 umhlabelo Nidorella sp & Selago sp Root 
54 4 umquma Olea europaea. Subsp. africana Leaf 
55 4 Wynruit; vue Ruta graveolens Leaf  
56 4 umafumbuka 
 
Sarcophyte sanguinea subsp. 
Sanguinea 
Bulb 
 
57 4 Wild ginger; isiphepheto Siphonochilus aethiopicus Rhizome 
58 4 Groenamara Vernonia oligacephala Leaf 
59 4 isibharha; isibhaha Warburgia salutaris Bark 
60 4 uvukwabafile  Root; bark 
61 3 umkhanya-kude Acacia xanthophloea Bark 
62 3 ipewula; iphewula; Elephant 
ear 
Cotyledon orbiculata 
 
Leaf 
 
63 3 uvuma  Root 
64 3 iMpinda bamshaye Rhoicissus tomentosa Tuber 
65 3 umgxam Schotia spp. Bark; leaf 
66 3 Katterkruie Stachys aethiopica Leaf & stem 
67 3 imifingwane Stangeria eriopus Root 
68 3 Witstorm; White storm Thesium lineatum Root 
69 3 umkhuhlwa Trichilia spp. Root; bark 
 35 
Table 3a continued 
 
70 3 indonya  Rhizome 
71 3 mlomo-mnandi  Root 
72 3 Love root  Root  
73 2 isindiyandiya Bersama lucens Root 
74 2 Red storm Bulbine alooides Tuber 
75 2 umahlabekufeni Croton gratissimus Root; leaf  
76 2 Gibeleweni  Croton sylvaticus Root 
77 2 Wildepietersielie; wildparsley Heteromorpha arborescens leaf 
78 2 isithithibala Ledebouria spp. Bulb 
79 2 umnukane; uNukani Ocotea bullata Bark 
80 2 inceba Polygala serpentaria Root 
81 2 umthathi Ptaeroxylon obliquum Bark 
82 2 idolo lenkonyana Rumex spp. Root 
83 2 umkhamamasane Tabernaemontana ventricosa Root 
84 2 umlungumabele Zanthoxylum capense? Bark 
85 2 nkuphulane  Root 
86 2 ungcana  Root 
 
 
 
 
Picture 1: Helichrysum petiolare (Koegoed ) on sale 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 
Picture 2: Agathosma betulina (Buchu) on sale 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Picture 3: Tulbaghia spp. (Wild garlic) ready for sale 
 37 
 
 
 
 
Picture 4: Hypoxis spp. (African potato) on sale 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Picture 5: Aloe rupestris (Intelezi) on sale 
 
 38 
 
 
 
Picture 6: Rhizome of Alepidea amatymbica (Kalmoes) on sale 
 
 
Difference in species preferences and ranking was observed between the Rastafarians and 
traditional healers (Tab. 3b & 3c). Agathosma spp., Helichrysum spp., Tulbaghia spp., 
Sutherlandia frutescens and Chironia baccifera were the Rastafarians’ five highly ranked 
medicinal plant species. Conversely, Helichrysum spp., Aloe spp., Gasteria spp., Haworthia 
attenuata, Hypoxis spp., Rhoicissus spp. and Tulbaghia spp. were the traditional healers’ most 
used medicinal plant species. In addition, there was also a difference between the top ranked 
medicinal plant species in the Cape Peninsula and those reported in surveys undertaken in 
Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal (Tab. 3d).  
 
 39 
Table 3b: Rastafarians’ most traded/used medicinal plants 
 
No. Fre- 
quency 
Vernacular/common name  Botanical name Part (s) used 
1 46 Buchu; Boegoe Agathosma betulina; A. crenulata Leaf & stem 
2 38 Kooigoed; hotnots-kooigoed; 
impepho 
Helichrysum spp. 
 
Leaf & stem 
3 28 Wild garlic Tulbaghia violacea; T. allicea Bulb 
4 24 Cancer bush; Kanker bossie; 
keurkie 
Sutherlandia frutescens Leaf & stem 
5 23 Bitterbos Chironia baccifera Leaf & stem 
6 23 African potato Hypoxis hemerocallidea Corm 
7 22 Rooiwortel; red carot Bulbine latifolia Rhizome 
8 21 David root; Dawidjiewortel Cissampelos capensis Root 
9 16 Intelezi; aloe 
 
Aloe ferox; A. perfoliata ;  
A. plicatelis; A. rupestris 
Haworthia attenuata; Gasteria 
bicolor; G. croucheri 
Leaf; whole  
 
10 16 Bergselery; wild selery Peucedanum galbanum Leaf & stem 
11 15 Bloekom Eucalyptus spp. Leaf 
12 13 Kalmoes; iqwili Alepidea amatymbica; A. delicatula Rhizome;  
Root 
13 13 Ysterhoutoppe Dodonaea angustifolia Leaf & stem 
14 13 Roosmary Rosmarinus officinalis Leaf 
15 13 Bitter patat Sanseviera aethiopica Tuber 
16 12 Bloublomsalie; Salie 
 
Salvia africana-caerulea;  
Buddleja salviifolia 
Leaf & stem 
17 12 Lavender Lavandula angustifolia Leaf & stem 
18 10 Wilde dagga; klipdagga Leonotis leonurus Leaf & stem 
19 10 Soethout wortel; sweet root Rafnia amplexicaulis Root 
20 9 Moer bos Aristea africana Whole plant 
21 8 Renosterbos(sie) 
 
Elytropappus rhinocerotis; 
Anthospermum spp.? Aspalathus 
spp.? 
Leaf & stem 
22 8 Wilde als Artemisia afra Whole  
23 8 Mathunga Haemanthus albiflos 
H. sanguineus 
Bulb 
 
24 8 Perdepis Hippobromus pauciflorus Leaf & stem 
25 8 Ag-dae-genees-bos Lobostemon fruticosus Leaf & stem 
26 7 Kruisement Mentha longifolia Leaf & stem 
27 6 Slang blaar Acokanthera oppositifolia Leaf 
28 6 Karmadik Cnicus benedictus Whole  
29 6 Tiemie Helychrisum spp. Leaf & stem 
30 5 Wildewingerd Cliffortia odorata Leaf 
31 5 Kaneelbol; kaneeltjies 
 
Eriospermum lanceolatum;  
Pelargonium triste 
Tuber 
 
32 5 Kruidjie-roer-my-nie Melianthus major Leaf 
33 5 Voelent Viscum capense Stem 
 40 
Table 3b continued 
 
34 4 Skilpad Dioscorea sylvatica Tuber 
35 4 Red onion Drimia spp. Bulb 
36 4 View; wynruit Ruta graveolens Leaf & stem 
37 4 Groenamara Vernonia oligacephala Leaf 
38 3 Katterkruie Stachys aethiopica Leaf & stem 
39 3 Witstorm; White storm Thesium lineatum Root 
40 3 Love root  Root 
41 2 inqwebeba; white onion Albuca setosa Bulb 
42 2 Red storm Bulbine alooides Tuber 
43 2 Wild ginger Siphonochilus aethiopicus Rhizome 
 
 
Table 3c: Traditional healers’ most used medicinal plants 
 
No. Fre- 
quency 
Vernacular/common name  Botanical name Part (s) used 
1 37 impepho Helichrysum spp. Leaf & stem 
2 22 Intelezi; ikhala; aloe; 
impundu 
 
Aloe ferox; A. perfoliata; 
A. plicatelis; A. rupestris 
Haworthia attenuata; Gasteria 
bicolor; G. croucheri 
Leaf; whole  
 
3 20 African potato; iNongwe; 
iNkomfe; iLabatheka 
Hypoxis hemerocallidea; 
H.colchicifolia 
Corm 
 
4 20 chithibunga  Rhoicissus spp. Tuber 
5 17 umwelela; Isivimbampunzi; 
Wild garlic 
Tulbaghia violacea; T. alliacea Bulb 
 
6 14 uMaphipha Rapanea melanophloes Bark 
7 13 Iqwili Alepidea amatymbica Rhizome 
8 13 Umhlonyana Artemisia afra Whole 
9 13 Isilawu Behnia reticulata Root 
10 12 uMathunga 
 
Haemanthus albiflos 
H. sanguineus 
Bulb 
 
11 10 Buchu Agathosma betulina; A.crenulata Leaf & stem 
12 10 umredeni Drimia elata Bulb 
13 9 umvuthuza Knowltonia bracteata Whole  
14 9 umnonono; umnono Strychnos spp. Bark 
15 8 icimamlilo Pentanisia prunelloides Root 
16 7 umagaqana Bowiea volubilis Bulb 
17 7 uroselina Cinnamomum camphora Bark; leaf 
18 7 umkhwenkwe Pittorporum viridiflorum Bark 
19 7 itshongwe Pachycarpus concolor Root 
20 6 inqwebeba Albuca setosa Bulb 
21 6 velabahleke Cyrtanthus mackenii Bulb 
22 6 umjelo; ujelo Rauvolfia caffra Bark 
23 5 Mayisake Cissampelos capensis Root 
24 5 isikolipati; ufudu Dioscorea sylvatica Tuber 
 41 
Table 3c continued 
 
25 5 umthuma Solanum spp. Fruit; root 
26 4 mlahleni  Curtisia dentata Root; bark 
27 4 iphuzi Gunnera perpensa Root 
28 4 ixonya Kniphofia uvaria Root 
29 4 umhlabelo Nidorella spp. Root 
30  umquma Olea europaea. Subsp. africana Leaf 
31 4 umafumbuka 
 
Sarcophyte sanguinea subsp. 
Sanguinea 
Bulb 
 
32 4 isibharha; isibhaha Warburgia salutaris Bark 
33 4 uvukwabafile  Root; bark 
34 3 umkhanya-kude Acacia xanthophloea Bark 
35 3 uvuma  Root 
36 3 iMpinda bamshaye Rhoicissus tomentosa Tuber 
37 3 umgxam Schotia spp. Bark; leaf 
38 3 imifingwane Stangeria eriopus Root 
39 3 umkhuhlwa Trichilia spp.  Root; bark 
40 3 indonya  Rhizome 
41 2 isindiyandiya Bersama lucens Root 
42 2 umahlabekufeni Croton gratissimus Root; leaf 
43 2 Gibeleweni  Croton sylvaticus Root 
44 2 ulathile Hippobromus pauciflorus Leaf & stems 
45 2 isithithibala Ledebouria spp. Bulb 
46 2 umnukane; uNukani Ocotea bullata Bark 
47 2 inceba Polygala serpentaria Root 
48 2 umthathi Ptaeroxylon obliquum Bark 
49 2 idolo lenkonyana Rumex spp. Root 
50 2 isiphepheto Siphonochilus aethiopicus Rhizom 
51 2 umkhamamasane Tabernaemontana ventricosa Root 
52 2 umlungumabele Zanthoxylum capense? Bark 
53 2 mlomo-mnandi  Root 
54 2 nkuphulane  Root 
55 2 ungcana  Root 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 42 
Table 3d: Comparison of the 10 most traded medicinal plants in the Cape Peninsula,  
Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal. 
 
No. Cape Peninsula Eastern Cape1 KwaZulu-Natal2 
1 Helichrysum sp Hypoxis hemerocallidea Scilla natalensis 
2 Agathosma betulina & A .crenulata Ilex mitis Alepidea amatymbica 
3 Tulbaghia violacea; T. alliacea Rhoicissus digitata Octea bullata 
4 Hypoxis hemerocallidea; H. 
colchicifolia 
Rubia petiolaris Warburgia salutaris 
5 Aloe spp.*; Gasteria bicolor;  
G. croucheri; Haworthia attenuata 
Helichrysum 
odoratissimum 
Eucomis autumnalis 
6 Alepidea amatymbica; A delicatula Curtisia dentata Curtisia dentata 
7 Cissampelos capensis Protorhus longifolia Haworthia lamifolia 
8 Sutherlandia frutescens Bulbine latifolia Bowiea volubilis 
9 Chironia baccifera 
 
Haworthia attenuate; 
Gasteria bicolor 
Siphonochilus aethiopicus 
10 Bulbine latifolia Rapanea melanophloes Secamone gerrardii 
*Aloe ferox; A .perfoliata ; A. plicatelis; A.rupestris  
1 Dold and Cocks, 2002. 
2 Mander, 1998. 
 
Of the traded medicinal plant parts, 26% comprised roots, 11% bulbs, 10% bark, 9% 
uprooting of the whole plant and 8% tubers. Aerial parts, which comprise leaves, stems, flower 
and fruits, accounted for 31% of the total of the material supplied in the market. Of concern is 
the five percent of species where roots, bark and leaves are removed altogether (Fig. 3a). 
 
31%
10%
8%
5%
11%
26%
9%
Ae
ria
l p
art
s*
Ba
rk
Tu
be
r
Ba
rk/
roo
t/ l
ea
f
Bu
lb
Ro
ot
W
ho
le 
pla
nt
Part used
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Nu
mb
er 
of 
ob
se
rva
tio
ns
  
Figure 3a: Overview of plant parts in trade/use 
 43 
Finally, the survey identified 18 species of plants (Tab. 3e), including those which are 
vulnerable, rare, critically endangered or those believed to be declining in the wild. Species for 
which there is insufficient information, but are protected in the Western Cape Province were also 
included.  
 
Table 3e: Species of concern 
 
Botanical name Family Conservation/ 
Protection status 
Sources 
Agathosma betulina Rutaceae Declining SANBI, 2007 
Agathosma crenulata Rutaceae Declining SANBI, 2007 
Alepidea amatymbica Apiaceae Data deficient SANBI, 2007 
Bowiea volubilis Hyacinthaceae Vulnerable SANBI, 2007 
Cliffortia grandifolia Rosaceae Rare SANBI, 2007 
Clivia miniata Amaryllidaceae Declining SANBI, 2007 
Clivia nobilis Amaryllidaceae Vulnerable SANBI, 2007 
Cyrtanthus mackenii Amaryllidaceae Declining SANBI, 2007 
Elaeodendron transvaalense Celastraceae Declining SANBI, 2007 
Gasteria bicolor Asphodelaceae Rare SANBI, 2007 
Gasteria croucheri Asphodelaceae Vulnerable SANBI, 2007 
Haworthia attenuata Asphodelaceae Protected WCPG, 2000 
Hypoxis hemerocallidea Hypoxidaceae Vulnerable SANBI, 2007 
Illex mitis Aquifoliaceae Protected WCPG, 2000 
Kniphofia uvaria Asphodelaceae Protected WCPG, 2000 
Ocotea bullata Lauraceae Declining SANBI, 2007 
Siphonochilus aethiopicus Zingiberaceae Critically endangered SANBI, 2007 
Stangeria eriopus Stangeriaceae Endangered WCPG, 2000 
 
3. 2. 2. Source of traded/used medicinal plants and harvesting frequency 
Over 66% of traded/used medicinal plants in the study area are exclusively harvested 
from the wild populations. Twenty-eight percent of the respondents stated securing their stocks 
of medicinal plants from various sources, which include home gardens, wild collection and 
purchase from collectors. Only 6% of the interviewed respondents were exclusively buying their 
products from harvesters (Fig. 3b).  
The bulk of traded/used medicinal plant species in the study area originate from the 
Western and Eastern provinces. Figure 3c shows that 88% of participants secure their products 
from the above mentioned provinces. Only 12% of the respondents reported procuring their 
stocks from KwaZulu-Natal, Lesotho, Northern Cape Province and Swaziland (Fig. 3c).  
 
 44 
66%
28%
6%
Wild collection
Wild collect/home gard/buy
Buy
Means of supply
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Nu
mb
er 
of 
ob
se
rva
tio
ns
 
 
Figure 3b: Means of procurement 
 
 
32% 32%
12%
24%
Western Cape
E.Cape & W.Cape
Other
Eastern Cape
Source of supply
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Nu
mb
er 
of 
ob
se
rva
tio
ns
 
 
Figure 3c: Sources of plant material 
 
Investigating the seasons in which most harvesting activities take place showed that 41% 
of the respondents collect their medicinal plants throughout the year, 29% in winter and 27% in 
summer (Fig. 3e). The majority of the respondents (52%) renewed their stock of medicinal plants 
every month, 22% every week and 17% once to 6 times per year (Fig. 3d). The 17% of those 
 45 
who harvest less during the year comprise mostly traditional healers who are largely non-native 
to the Western Cape Province. 
 
9%
52%
22%
8% 9%
Tw
ice
 a 
mo
nth
On
ce
 a 
mo
nth
On
ce
 a 
we
ek
On
ce
 a 
ye
ar
2-
6 t
im
es
 pe
r y
ea
r
Frequency of harvesting
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Nu
mb
er 
of 
ob
se
rva
tio
ns
 
 
Figure 3d: Frequency of harvesting 
 
 
26%
5%
24%
40%
2% 3%
W
int
er
Su
mm
er
 &
 W
int
er
Su
mm
er
Th
ro
ug
ho
ut 
the
 ye
ar
Au
tum
n
Sp
rin
g
Most harvesting seasons
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Nu
mb
er 
of 
ob
se
rva
tio
ns
 
 
Figure 3e: Harvesting seasons 
 
 46 
3. 2. 3. Financial value of some medicinal plant species 
The Rhizome of Bulbine latifolia was the highest price-fetching medicinal plant species 
among the Rastafarian traders. Its average price was R12.33±4.17 at the time of the survey. 
Haemathus spp., (11.57±6.65), Hypoxis spp. (R10.12±5.21) and Alepidea spp. (R10.00) were the 
other most valued species among Rastafarian communities. Traders set the price of products 
according to the size. For example, a small piece of the rhizome of Bulbine latifolia was valued 
at R10.00, while the larger one reached R25.00. Similarly, a small corm of Alepidea amatymbica 
costs R5.00, while a bigger diameter costs R25.00 (Tab. 3f). However, the frequently 
encountered prices (mode) for these two species were R15.00 and R10.00, respectively. 
Furthermore, Table 3e shows that species which are sold for their bulbs, corms, rhizomes, roots 
and tubers are more valued than those sold for their leaves.  
It was difficult to assess the value of a single medicinal plant species traded by traditional 
healers, as most of the products consisted of mixtures from several species. For example, in 
Khayelitsha, a litre-bottle solution of umgxam bark (Schotia spp.) mixed with other species was 
sold for R50.00 at certain medicinal plant shops. The same price applies to a mixture consisting 
mainly of umdlavusa (unidentified species). Most importantly, a mixture from the bulbs of 
umagaqana (Bowiea volubilis), believed to bring luck, was sold for R100.00 per litre size bottle. 
 47
Table 3f: Average price and price variation of some most traded medicinal plant species 
 
Plant names Prices in Rand 
Vernacular Botanical name 
Part used Trade unit 
N Mean s.d. Median Mode Max Min Range 
Rooiwortel Bulbine latifolia Rhizome Piece 15 12.33 4.17 10 15 25 10 15 
Mathunga Haemanthus albiflos 
H. sanguineus 
Bulb Piece 7 11.57 6.65 10 10 25 5 20 
African potato Hypoxis hemerocallidea Corm Piece 17 10.12 5.21 10 10 25 5 20 
Kalmoes Alepidea amatymbica; A. delicatula Rhizome;  
Root 
Piece 8 10.00 0.00 10 10 10 10 0 
David root Cissampelos capensis Root Piece 15 9.67 2.97 10 10 15 5 10 
Sweet root Rafnia amplexicaulis Root Piece 6 9.17 2.04 10 10 10 5 5 
Chithibhunga Rhoicissus spp. Tuber Piece 7 9.00 1.91 10 10 10 5 5 
Bitter patat Sanseviera aethiopica Tuber Piece 7 8.57 5.56 5 5 20 5 15 
Intelezi Aloe ferox; A. perfoliata; A. plicatelis; 
A. rupestris; Haworthia attenuata; 
Gasteria bicolor; G. croucheri 
Whole; 
Leaf 
Piece; leaf 12 7.92 3.34 7.5 5 15 5 10 
Wild garlic Tulbaghia violacea; T. alliacea Bulb Piece 20 7.07 3.72 5 5 15 2 13 
Timie Helychrisum spp. 
 
Leaf & 
stem 
Small 
bunch 
4 6.87 2.39 6.25 5 10 5 5 
Boegoe; Buchu Agathosma betulina; A. crenulata Leaf & 
Stem 
Small 
bunch 
31 6.81 3.63 5 5 20 2 18 
Cancer bush Sutherlandia frutescens Leaf & 
Stem 
Small 
bunch 
20 6.62 2.60 5 5 15 5 10 
Ysterhouttoppe Dodonaea angustifolia 
 
Leaf & 
Stem 
Small 
bunch 
11 5.68 1.62 5 5 10 5 5 
Bitterbos Chironia baccifera 
 
Leaf & 
Stem 
Small 
bunch 
19 5.53 1.97 5 5 10 2 8 
Lavender Lavandula angustifolia 
 
Leaf & 
Stem 
Small 
bunch 
9 5.50 2.18 5 5 10 2 8 
Bloekom Eucalyptus spp. Leaf Small 
bunch 
12 5.37 1.87 5 5 10 2 8 
Bergselery Peucedanum galbanum Leaf & 
stem 
Small 
bunch 
13 5.35 1.80 5 5 10 2 8 
 48
Table 3f continued 
 
Vernacular Botanical name Part used Trade unit N Mean s.d. Median Mode Max Min Range 
imphepho Helichrysum petiolare 
 
Leaf & 
stem 
Small 
bunch 
34 5.32 2.17 5 5 10 2 8 
Roosmaryn Rosmarinus officinalis Leaf Small 
bunch 
12 5.00 1.86 5 5 10 2 8 
Renosterbos Elytropappus rhinocerotis; 
Anthospermum spp.? Aspalathus spp.? 
Leaf & 
stem 
Small 
bunch 
4 5.00 0.00 5 5 5 5 0 
Wilde dagga Leonotis leonurus 
 
Leaf & 
stem 
Small 
bunch 
8 5.00 2.33 5 5 10 2 8 
Kruisement Mentha longifolia 
 
Leaf & 
stem 
Small 
bunch 
6 4.67 0.82 5 5 5 3 2 
Salie Salvia africana-caerulea;  
Buddleja salviifolia 
Leaf & 
stem 
Small 
bunch 
8 4.62 1.06 5 5 5 2 3 
Wilde als Artemisia afra Whole Small 
bunch 
4 4.5 1.00 5 5 5 3 2 
Moer bos Aristea africana Whole Small 
bunch 
6 4.33 1.03 5  5 5 3 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 49 
 
 
 
 
Picture 7: A Rastafarian street trader in Stellenbosch 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Picture 8: Medicinal plant barks on shop shelves in Langa 
 
 
 50 
3. 3. Discussion  
Many more species of medicinal plants are traded/used in the study area than reported 
during this survey. However, documenting species in trade/use, traded parts, harvesting 
frequencies, source of material and financial value of traded species are starting points for 
effective resource management and conservation (Williams et al., 2000). Consequently, this 
section presents and discusses the observed trends, using available and appropriate literature. 
 
3. 3. 1. Overview of the most traded/used medicinal plants species 
The trade of medicinal plants in the Cape Peninsula is not as extensive as in other urban 
regions of South Africa such as Johannesburg or Durban. This is reflected not only by the low 
number of medicinal plant species actively traded/used, but also by the number of people 
involved in the trade. In fact, Williams and others (2000) reported about 511 species of 
medicinal plants in active trade in Johannesburg and its surroundings. In KwaZulu-Natal, 400 
species of medicinal plants were in active trade; between 2,000 and 3,000 people derived income 
from medicinal plant trade (Mander, 1998). Conversely, fewer people were involved in the trade 
of medicinal plants in the Cape Peninsula. This is illustrated by the presence of less than 10 
traders, at the time of the survey, in the greater Cape Town metropolitan area. Unlike, 
Johannesburg and Durban, less than 170 medicinal plants were actively traded in the entire study 
area.  
It is argued that the ranking of medicinal plant species in distinct geographical regions is 
influenced by differences in healing practices between various ethnic groups as well as by the 
availability of resources in those geographical areas (Dold and Cocks, 2002). This was true when 
comparing the top ranked species in the Cape Peninsula with those reported in surveys from the 
Eastern Cape Province and KwaZulu-Natal. For example, Helichrysum spp. were the top ranked 
species in the Cape Peninsula, but fifth in the Eastern Cape Province and not among the top 10 
traded species in KwaZulu-Natal (Table 3d). Within ethnic groups, Imphepho (Helichrysum 
spp.) was the top ranked species among traditional healers, while it was second within the 
members of the Rastafarian community. Buchu (Agathosma spp.), which was the top ranked 
species among Rastafarians, was ranked 10th among traditional healers (Table 3b & 3c). This 
discrepancy in ranking medicinal plants could therefore be explained by the difference in healing 
 51 
practices between Rastafarians who were mainly coloured and traditional healers who were all 
black.  
It is believed that medicinal plants that are the most popular and/or brought into the 
market are often the most effective (physiologically or psychosomatically) herbal remedies 
(Cunningham, 1993). A closer examination of the traditional therapeutic claim of some species 
such as Imphepho, Buchu and African potato may help to explain why these plant species are 
frequently traded/used.  
 
Impepho (Helichrysum spp.) 
The popularity of Imphepho as a herbal remedy is not only restricted to the study area. In 
fact, in a survey of urban market in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa, among the 60 
frequently traded medicinal plants, Helicrysum odoratissimum was ranked fifth (Dold and 
Cocks, 2002). In the Witwatersrand area, out of 50 medicinal plant shops surveyed, 70% had 
Helichrysum spp. on shelves and they were ranked second among the most popular and 
demanded species of medicinal plants (Williams et al., 2000). These species were also among 
the 20 most used species in the Bredasdorp/Elim region of the Southern Overberg in the Western 
Cape Province (Thring and Weitz, 2006). 
The reported wide range of therapeutic claims in traditional medicine may explain the 
popularity of these species. Ailments and diseases reported to be treated by these species 
encompass body odours, sores, colds, headaches, nausea, respiratory infections, chest, heart, 
kidneys, gonorrhoea, menstrual pain, diarrhoea, eye, flu, arthritis, bladder, flu, cough, 
rheumatism, fever and sleeplessness complaints. Some magical uses have also been reported. For 
example, smoke from burned leaves and stems are believed to invoke the goodwill of ancestors 
and to induce trances, especially among diviners. Love charms for men and preventing bad 
dreams are other uses of Helicrysum spp. (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962; Hutchings et al., 
1996; Thring and Weitz, 2006).  
Apart from the therapeutic claims in traditional medicine, pharmacological research has 
demonstrated the antifungal, antibacterial, antimicrobial, antimalarial and anticarcinogenic 
activities of some Helicrysum spp. not only in South Africa, but also in other regions of the 
world (Cosar and Cubukcu, 1990; Meyer and Afoloyan, 1995; Afoloyan and Meyer, 1997; 
 52 
Mathekga, 2001; Swartz, 2006; Nostero et al., 2001; van Vuuren et al., 2006; Yagura et al., 
2008).  
 
Buchu (Agathosma spp.) 
Restricted to some regions of the Western Cape Province of South Africa, Buch 
(Agathosma betulina and A. crenulata) was an important ingredient in San and Khoi-khoi 
healing culture (Van Wyk and Gericke, 2000). Today, Buchu is still popular in some regions 
such as the Cape Peninsula where it is ranked second among the 86 most traded/used species of 
medicinal plants. Furthermore, products derived from these plants (e.g., essential oils) have 
entered the international market for food and pharmaceuticals. About 80% buchu essential oils 
are mainly used in food industry and to a lesser extent in the pharmaceutical industry, 
aromatherapy and perfume industries (Coetzee et al., 1999; Viljoen and Moola, 2007; DA, 
2007). Despite the fact that the population of this species is declining in the wild (SANBI, 2007), 
it is estimated that about 400 tons of raw material (wild and cultivated) are harvested annually 
(Williams, 2005).  
The traditional use of Buchu encompasses the treatment of kidney and urinary tract 
infections, colds, stomach-ache, rheumatism, gout, fever, bladder, cholera and bruises (Watt and 
Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962; Scott and Springfield, 2004). Furthermore, in-vitro trials have shown 
some strong anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant and weak antimicrobial activities of A. betulina 
(Scott and Springfield, 2004; Viljoen and Moola, 2007).  
 
African potato (Hypoxis spp.) 
The corn of African potato is among the most traded/used medicinal plant material in 
South Africa as well as in southern African region (Ojewole et al., 2006; Drewes and Khan, 
2004). For example, in a survey of medicinal plant market places undertaken in Maputo 
(Mozambique), Krog et al. (2006) found that H. hemerocallidea was the top traded species 
among the 48 species of medicinal plants frequentely brought into the market. In addition, 
among the 60 most traded species of medicinal plants in the Eastern Cape Province of South 
Africa, African potato was the topmost (Dold and Cocks, 2002). Furthermore, the popularity of 
African potato was confirmed in the current study where this species was ranked fourth among 
the 86 most traded/used medicinal plants. 
 53 
Decoctions and infusions of African potato corms are widely used in South African 
traditional medicine to treat a number of ailments and diseases, including benign prostate 
hypertrophy, mental disorder (dizziness, epilepsy and childhood convulsions), bladder and 
urinary tract infections, asthma, testicular tumours, tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS-related diseases 
(Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962; Hutchings et al., 1996; Van Wyk and Gericke, 2000; 
Ojewole and Musabayane, 2006). There is a wide range of Hypoxis extracts available in 
pharmacies, health shops and supermarkets in South Africa. These include Moducare® (immune 
booster), Hypo-Plus (food supplement, energy booster and immunity modulator), capsules and 
tablets consisting of the whole Hypoxis Hemerocallidea plant (Drewes and Khan, 2004).  
Some experimental trials on animals and humans tend to support some traditional uses of 
Hypoxis hemerocallidea. For example, Ojewole (2006) has demonstrated the anti-inflammatory 
and antidiabetic properties of Hypoxis hemerocallidea. Furthermore, experimental studies on 
animals support the traditional use of H. hemerocallidea in the management and control of 
certain cardiac dysfunctions (Ojewole et al., 2006). However, despite the in-vitro activity of 
Moducare® in inducing the increase in T cells from human trial experiments (Drewes and Khan, 
2004), there is still controversy regarding the use of Hypoxis extract as an effective agent for 
treating HIV/AIDS due to its toxicity (Govender et al., 2006). This view is also supported by 
Mills et al., (2005) who found that the use of Sutherlandia frutescens and Hypoxis 
hemerocallidea with antiretroviral agents may put patients at risk of treatment failure and viral 
resistance or drug toxicity. Regardless of this controversy and the reported toxicity, the active 
trade in this species is still occurring in South Africa.  
 
3. 3. 2. Parts traded, harvesting frequencies and seasons 
Despite the paucity of experiments evaluating the impact of harvest on non-timber forest 
products (NTFPs), the impact of harvest is related to the plant part harvested, frequency and 
intensity of harvesting (Cunningham, 2001; Nakazono et al., 2004; Schippmann et al.,2005). If 
harvesting of leaves, fruits or flowers has less impact on individual plants, harvesting of roots, 
bulbs, corms, bark or whole plant is more destructive and may lead to species death 
(Cunningham, 2001; Dzerefos and Witkowski, 2001; Geldenhuys, 2004; Schippmann et 
al.,2005). Frequent removal of the latter parts may result in plant water uptake reduction, plant 
carbohydrate reserve depletion and nutrient flow disruption or increase the susceptibility to 
 54 
fungal attacks (Cunningham, 2001; Geldenhuys, 2004; Botha et al., 2004). Regrettably, at least 
74% of the respondents harvest a minimum of 60% of these vital parts every month (Figure 3a & 
3d). Therefore, following Struhsaker (1998), who refers to sustainable harvest as activities 
involving the removal of a natural resource that do not deplete or compromise its ability to 
regenerate in the future, medicinal plants traded/used in the Cape Peninsula may not be 
sustainably harvested (as shown in Picture 8). 
The prevailing usage of these vital plant parts is not only restricted to the study area, but 
common in the southern African region (Cunningham, 1993). In fact, contrary to West African 
countries where leaves are the common source of medicine, it is reported that bulbs, bark and 
roots are commonly used/traded in the southern African region. For example, in the Eastern Cape 
Province of South Africa, of the 60 most traded medicinal plant species, 93% were sold for their 
bulbs, tubers, roots, bark or the whole plant (Dold and Cocks, 2002). The removal of whole 
plants, roots, bulbs and bark totalled 83% of all plant material traded in the Witwatersrand area 
(Johannesburg and its surroundings) (Williams et al., 2000). Moreover, in Maputo, of the 
reported traded medicinal plant products, 24% consisted of leaves, fruits or branches, while 76% 
comprised of destructive parts, including roots, bulbs, bark or whole plants (Krog et al., 2006). 
The embedded belief, especially among traditional healers, in low content of active compounds 
in leaves compared to other parts such as bark fuel the increasing use of these destructive parts 
(Geldenhuys, 2004). Despite scientific evidences supporting this fact, Geldenhuys (2004) argued 
that the concentration in active compound from leaves could be increased by merely increasing 
the quantity of leaves used.  
 
3. 3. 3. Financial value of some traded species 
It is well established that price of natural resources brought into the market provides 
useful insights into the status of the resource in the wild (Cunningham, 2001). In fact, it is 
speculated that the financial value of a particular product is inversely related to the supply of the 
concerned product (Dovie, 2003). Cunningham (2001) also noted that an increase in the price of 
a particular species is believed to be an indication of its scarcity. This might be true for species 
such as Rooiwortel (Bulbine latifolia), which is the top prized medicinal plant species among the 
members of the Rastafarian community and was reported to have become scarce in the wild 
(Vermeulen, 2005).  
 55 
Despite the fact that factors influencing the financial value of species traded were not 
among the objectives of this study, it is worth noting that the price of a species tends to be 
influenced by the source region and also by the part traded. For example, medicinal plants traded 
for their bulbs, roots, corms or rhizomes were more costly than those traded for their leaves 
(Table 3e). In addition, apart from Haemanthus spp., the other top prized species (mean: R10+) 
were not sourced from the Cape Peninsula. Respondents reported to have procured Rooiwortel 
(Bulbine latifolia), Africa potato (Hypoxis hemerocallidea) and Kalmoes from Knysna and the 
Eastern Cape Province. This view of the informants is supported by the literature on the 
distribution of plants in South Africa (Germishuizen and Meyer, 2003; Goldblatt and Manning, 
2000). 
Besides the area from which plants were sourced, parts of the plant traded and the relative 
abundance of the species in the wild, the physical effort of acquiring a species may be also a 
criterion for valuating a particular species on the market. This might be true when considering 
species such Umathunga (Haemanthus spp.) and Rooiwortel (Bulbine latifolia), which have been 
reported to preferentially grow on rocky slopes (Goldblatt and Manning, 2000). Therefore, 
harvesting such species necessitates physical effort and also time, leading to high prices for the 
traded parts of the species on the market. Effort of acquiring a species was also mentioned by 
traders and traditional healers in the areas adjacent to the Kruger National Park as one of the 
criteria for setting the price of medicinal plant species brought into the market (Botha, 2001).  
 
3. 4. Conclusion 
Although the trade of medicinal plants in the Cape Peninsula is not as broad as in other 
regions of South Africa, the percentage of destructive part in trade, the frequency of harvesting 
and the presence of some threatened species in the market are matters of concern. Eighty-six 
species were actively traded and 18 of them, which should be given special attention, were of 
concern.  
 
 56 
Chapter 4: Social, cultural and economic attributes influencing the trade of 
medicinal plants in the Cape Peninsula 
 
4. 1. Introduction 
Medicinal plants have been used as sources of medicine for treating human ailments, 
worldwide. Today, up to 80% of the population in developing countries still depend on herbal 
remedies for their primary healthcare needs (WHO, 2006; Botha et al., 2003; Afolayan and 
Adebola, 2004). In South Africa, every year, about 12-15 million people consult traditional 
health practitioners and use prescribed preparations (Williams, 2002).  
Besides being the primary source of medicines, medicinal plants are increasingly being 
harvested for income generation. Traditional health practitioners, well known for their 
sustainable harvesting practices, are no longer the sole collectors of medicinal plants. The high 
rate of urbanisation, resulting in high demand for medicinal plants, combined with the high rate 
of unemployment, have favoured the involvement of commercial gatherers. Still, the huge 
demand for medicinal plants in urban centres has motivated traditional health practitioners to 
move from rural to urban centres, where their activities can be rewarding (Cunningham, 1993). 
In the KwaZulu-Natal Province alone, Mander (1998) inventoried about 20,000 to 30,000 people 
deriving incomes from the trade of non timber forest products (NTFPs), including medicinal 
plants. Black women, the most marginalized group in South Africa, were the most predominant 
in this trade. Therefore, as pointed out by Gunatilake et al. (2007), for an effective resource 
management, apart from ecological principles, it is equally important to understand social, 
cultural and economic conditions of resource users.  
The main purpose of this chapter is to address the second objective of the study, which 
intends to profile social, economic and cultural characteristics of the informants that may 
influence their involvement in medicinal plants-related activities. This main objective was met 
by addressing the following research questions: (1) Does gender, age and ethnicity of informants 
influence the trade of medicinal plants in the Cape Peninsula? (2) Do informants’ educational 
levels, area of birth and number of dependents play a role in their involvement in medicinal 
plants-related activities? (3) What are the respondents’ rationales for involvement in medicinal 
plants-related activities? In addition, sources of medicinal plants supply, frequency of harvesting 
and income generated from the trade are also considered in addressing this objective.  
 57 
 
4. 2. Results 
The following section presents the outcomes of the investigation, which include a 
detailed social, economic and cultural attributes of the respondents, gender, age groups, ethnicity 
and residence status of stakeholders involved in the trade of medicinal plants in the Cape 
Peninsula. Income generated from the trade, educational level attained by the respondents and 
the duration of involvement in medicinal plants-related activities are also described in these 
following sub-sections. Procedure and Methodology used in gathering and analysing data to 
adress the above objective of the study are described in Chapter 1, section 1.6. 
 
4. 2. 1. Gender of the respondents 
Social, economic and cultural considerations may influence the way communities interact 
with their natural environment. Table 4a gives a detailed summary of these attributes within the 
communities surveyed. One hundred and thirty-one informants were interviewed and the survey 
consisted of 44% (n=58) women and 56% (n=73) men.  
 
Table 4a: Social, economic and cultural attributes of the surveyed respondents (n=131) 
 
Gender  Proportion 
Female 44% (n=58) 
Male 56% (n=73) 
Home languages   
Afrikaans 30% (n=40) 
Xhosa 66% (n=86) 
Other(Zulu, Sotho) 4% (n=5) 
Ethnicity  
African black 70% (n=92) 
Coloured 30% (n=39) 
Area of birth  
Western Cape 36% (n=47) 
Eastern Cape 60% (n=79) 
Other (KwaZulu-Natal, Swaziland, Northern Province, Lesotho) 4% (n=5) 
Involvement category in the trade of medicinal plants  
Traditional healers 52% (n=68) 
collectors/street traders 30% (n=40) 
Shop traders 18% (n=23) 
 58 
Table 4a continued 
 
Employment status (formal sector)  
Employed 17% (n=23) 
Unemployed (formal sector) 76% (n=99) 
Self-employed 6.2% (n=8) 
Pensioner 0.8% (n=1) 
Educational levels attained  
No formal education 6% (n=7) 
Primary education 28% (n=33) 
Secondary education 63% (n=74) 
Tertiary education 3% (n=4) 
Involvement in medicinal plants   
Full-time  75% (n=98) 
Part-time 25% (n=33) 
Rationale for involvement in medicinal plants  
Socio-cultural beliefs 82% (n=101) 
Economic reasons 6% (n=7) 
Socio-cultural and economic reasons 12% (n=15) 
Patient/customer origin  
Mostly within the community 45% (n=42) 
Within the community, surrounding towns and other provinces 55% (n=52) 
Medicinal plants dependency for living  
Yes 81% (n=57) 
No 19% (n=13) 
 
It was found that gender influences the position of the informants in the trade of 
medicinal plants within the Cape Peninsula region, although this is not the case in other parts of 
South Africa. For example, the majority of women (83%: n=48) were traditional healers, while 
51% (n=37) of the male respondents were in the category of collectors/street traders. 
Consequently, there is a significant difference (p=0.000) between gender and the involvement 
category in the trade of medicinal plants (Fig. 4a). There is also a significant difference (p<0.01) 
between the gender of respondents and the number of dependents supported (Fig. 4b). Female 
respondents support more people ( X =5 ±1.43) than their male counterparts ( X =3.36 ±1.86). 
However, there is no significant difference between gender and the income generated from the 
trade of medicinal plants. Similarly, there is no significant difference between gender and the 
dependency on medicinal plant trade for livelihood. 
 
 59 
Chi-square test: p=.00000
Involvement category
Nu
mb
er 
of 
ob
se
rva
tio
ns
Gender: Male
Collect-St trader
Traditional healer
Shop trader
0
10
20
30
40
50
Gender: Female
Collect-St trader
Traditional healer
Shop trader
51%
27%
22%
5%
83%
12%
 
 
Figure 4a: The effects of gender on involvement category in the trade of medicinal plants 
 
 Mann-Whitney U p<0.01
Vertical bars denote 0.95 confidence intervals
Male Female
Gender
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Nu
mb
er 
of 
de
pe
nd
en
ts
  
Figure 4b: Gender and the number of dependents supported 
 
4. 2. 2. Age groups of the respondents  
When the informants were profiled according to the four age categories, 46% (n=57) of 
the respondents fall within 41-50 years old, 27% (n=33) within 31-40 years old, 15% (n=19) 
within 51 years and above and only 12 % (n=14) within 20-30 years old (Tab. 4b). A slightly 
 60 
significant difference is found (p=0.04) between gender and the age of involvement in the trade 
of medicinal plants (Fig. 4c). Female respondents become involved in the trade at later stages 
than male respondents.  
 
Table 4b: Age distribution of the respondents  
Age groups Street trader/ 
collectors 
Shop traders Traditional 
healers 
Total 
Group 1 [20-30] 9 3 2 14 (12%) 
Group 2 [31-40] 15 4 14 33 (27%) 
Group 3 [41-50] 13 11 33 57 (46%) 
Group 4 51+ 0 3 16 19 (15%) 
Total 37 21 65 123 
 
 
Mann-Whitney U p=0.04
Vertical bars denote 0.95 confidence intervals
Male Female
Gender
20-30
31-40
41-50
51+
Ag
e g
rou
p
 
 
Figure 4c: The effects of age on gender involvement in the trade of medicinal plants 
 
Involvement category is also influenced by the age of respondents. The majority of 
collectors/street traders (65%: n=24) fall within the 20-40 year category, while 67% (n=14) of 
shop traders and 75% (n=49) of traditional healers fall within 41 years and above (Tab. 4b). 
Accordingly, there is a significant difference (p=0.000) between the involvement category in the 
trade and the age of the respondents (Fig. 4d). Equally, there is a significant difference 
(p=0.009368) between age and the time of involvement in the trade of medicinal plants. Younger 
 61 
respondents are partially involved in the trade of medicinal plants as opposed to older 
respondents who tend to be fully involved (Fig. 4e).  
 
Kruskal-Wallis p=0.000
Vertical bars denote 0.95 confidence intervals
Collect-St trader Traditional healer Shop trader
Involvement category
20-30
31-40
41-50
51+
Ag
e g
rou
p
  
Figure 4d: The effects of age on the involvement category in the trade of medicinal plants 
 
 
Mann-Whitney U p=0.009368
Vertical bars denote 0.95 confidence intervals
Full Part
Time of involvement
20-30
31-40
41-50
51+
Ag
e g
rou
p
 
 
Figure 4e: The effects of age on the time of involvement in medicinal plant trade 
 
 62 
In addition, although weak, there is a positive correlation (r=0.23; p=0.02) between the 
age groups and the number of sources of supply (Fig. 4f). Older respondents seem to have more 
choice of sources of supply than younger respondents. However, although there is a trend 
towards the decrease of income with age, no significant correlation exists between income and 
age groups (Fig. 4g). There is equally no significant difference between the age groups and the 
motivation for entering the informal trade of medicinal plants.  
 
 Spearman r = 0.23 p=0.02
20
-30
31
-40
41
-50 51+
Age group
0
1
2
3
4
Nu
mb
er 
of 
so
urc
es
 of
 su
pp
ly
 
 
Figure 4f: The effects of age on the number of sources of supply 
 
 63 
 Spearman r = -0.22 p=0.05
20
-30
31
-40
41
-50 51+
Age group
<500
501-1000
1001-1500
1501-2500
2501+
Inc
om
e c
ate
go
rie
s (
Ra
nd
)
 
 
Figure 4g: The effects of age on the income generated from the trade 
 
4. 2. 3. Ethnicity  
Seventy percent (n=92) of the informants were black and 30% (n=39) were coloured; 
there was no white person found in the informal trade of medicinal plants in the Cape Peninsula. 
Among the black group, 74% (n=68) were traditional healers, 23% (n=21) owned medicinal 
plant shops and only 3% (n=3) were collectors/street traders. Coloured respondents, who turned 
out to be all Rastafarians, were predominantly collectors/street traders (95%: n=37) and only 5% 
(n=2) owned medicinal plant shops. 
Grouping informants by ethnicity has revealed some significant differences. For example, 
a significant difference (p=0.000064) exists between ethnicity and the age of involvement in the 
trade of medicinal plants (Fig. 4h). Coloured respondents engage in the trade of medicinal plants 
earlier than black respondents. In fact, not many coloured respondent were found above 51 years 
of age. 
 64 
Mann-Whitney U p=0.000064
Vertical bars denote 0.95 confidence intervals
C B
Ethnicity
20-30
31-40
41-50
51+
Ag
e g
rou
p
 
 
Figure 4h: Ethnicity and the age of involvement in the trade of medicinal plants 
 
The reasons for involvement in medicinal plant trade also differ according to ethnicity. 
Ninety-two percent of the black respondents considered their involvement as culturally 
motivated, while only 62% (n=24) of the coloured respondents stated the same motivation for 
their involvement. Eighteen percent of the coloured respondents (n=7) justified their involvement 
in the trade of medicinal plants for economic reasons. None of the black respondents mentioned 
economic considerations per se, as a motivation for their involvement. Consequently, there is a 
significant difference (p=0.0002) between ethnicity and the reasons for entering into medicinal 
plant-related activities (Fig. 4i).  
 65 
Chi-square test: p=.00002
Motivation
Nu
mb
er 
of 
ob
se
rva
tio
ns
Ethnicity: C
Cult belief CultEco Economic
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Ethnicity: B
Cult belief CultEco Economic
61%
21% 18%
92%
8%
0%
 
 
Figure 4i: Effect of ethnicity on the underlying rationale for involvement 
 
There is also a significant difference (p=0.000106) between ethnicity and the number of 
dependents supported by the medicinal plant trade (Fig. 4j). Black respondents support more 
dependents ( X =4.7755±1.5037) than the coloured respondents ( X =2.875±1.8723).  
 
Mann-Whitney U p=0.000106
Vertical bars denote 0.95 confidence intervals
C B
Ethnicity
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Nu
mb
er 
of 
de
pe
nd
en
ts
 
 
Figure 4j: Number of dependents supported and ethnicity 
 66 
Furthermore, ethnicity influences the sources of supply as well as the the choice of 
harvesting season. The majority of the coloured respondents (82%: n=32) exclusively collect 
their medicinal plants from the Western Cape vegetation, while only 9% (n=8) of the black 
respondents do so. The majority of the black respondents (40%: n=34) are sourcing their 
medicinal plants from both the Western and Eastern Cape provinces, while 35% (n=30) of the 
black respondents collect their medicinal plants from the Eastern Cape Province exclusively. 
None of the coloured respondents exclusively depend on other provinces to secure their products. 
As a result, there is a significant difference (p=0.00000) between ethnicity and the sources of 
supply of medicinal plants (Fig. 4k). Similarly, there is a significant difference (p=0.00000) 
between ethnicity and the most harvesting seasons (Fig. 4l). Fifty percent (n=19) of the coloured 
respondents generate more income during winter, while 48% (n=40) of the black informants 
stated enjoying high sales of medicinal plants throughout the year. 
 
 
Chi-square test: p=.00000
Sources of supply
Nu
mb
er 
of 
ob
se
rva
tio
ns
Ethnicity: C
WC EC&WC Other EC
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Ethnicity: B
WC EC&WC Other EC
82%
15%
3% 0%
9%
40%
16%
35%
 
 
Figure 4k: Effect of ethnicity on sources of supply 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 67 
Chi-square test: p=.00000
Most harvesting seasons
Nu
mb
er
 of
 ob
se
rva
tio
ns
Ethnicity: C
W
int
er
Su
m-
W
int
er
Su
mm
er
All
 se
as
on
s
Au
tum
n
Sp
rin
g0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Ethnicity: B
W
int
er
Su
m-
W
int
er
Su
mm
er
All
 se
as
on
s
Au
tum
n
Sp
rin
g
50%
11% 8%
28%
0% 3%
14%
0%
35%
48%
1% 2%
 
 
Figure 4l: Ethnicity and the most harvesting seasons 
 
4. 2. 4. Residence status 
Thirty-six percent (n=47) of the respondents were born in the Western Cape Province and 
64% (n=84) elsewhere. Among the 64%, 94% (n=79) of the respondents came from the 
neighbouring Eastern Cape Province and the remaining 6% of the respondents came from 
KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape, Swaziland and Lesotho (Tab. 4a above). As with ethnicity, there 
is a significant difference (p=0.00008) between residence status and the rationale for 
involvement in medicinal plants (Fig. 4m). Fifteen percent (n=7) of the native informants 
motivated their involvement in medicinal plants for economic reason. Surprisingly, none of the 
non-native respondents mentioned economic considerations as the major reasons for their 
involvement in the informal trade of medicinal plants. Although the majority of the non-native 
respondents stated cultural motivations for involvement in medicinal plants, 90% (n=37) of them 
acknowledged the contribution of medicinal plant trade to their livelihood strategies in 
comparison to the 69% (n=20) of the native respondents. There is a significant difference 
(p=0.02457) between residence status and medicinal plant trade dependency (Fig. 4n).  
 
 68 
Chi-square test: p=.00008
Motivation
Nu
mb
er 
of 
ob
se
rva
tio
ns
Native
Cult belief CultEco Economic
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Non-native
Cult belief CultEco Economic
66%
19% 15%
92%
8%
0%
 
 
Figure 4m: Effect of residence status on the underlying rationale for involvement 
 
Chi-square test: p=.02457
Do you make a living
Nu
mb
er 
of 
ob
se
rva
tio
ns
Native
Yes NO
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Non-native
Yes NO
69%
31%
90%
10%
  
Figure 4n: Effect of residence status on medicinal plant trade dependence 
 
Similarly, there are significant differences between residence status and the number of 
dependents (p=0.002833) and residence status with sources of supply (p=0.0000) of the traded 
medicinal plants (Fig. 4o & 4p). Non-native respondents have more dependents to take care of 
( X =4.7381±1.5627) than the native respondents ( X =3.3548±1.9416). Seventy percent (n=35) 
 69 
of the native respondents exclusively source their medicinal plants from the Western Cape 
vegetation, while only 6% (n=5) of the non-natives exclusively depend on the Western Cape to 
satisfy their demand for medicinal plants.  
 
Mann-Whitney U p=0.002833
Vertical bars denote 0.95 confidence intervals
Native Non-native
Residence status
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Nu
mb
er 
of 
de
pe
nd
en
ts
 
 
Figure 4o: Number of dependents supported and residence status 
 
Chi-square test: p=.00000
Sources of supply
Nu
mb
er 
of 
ob
se
rva
tio
ns
Native
WC EC&WC Other EC
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Non-native
WC EC&WC Other EC
75%
23%
2% 0%
6%
37%
18%
39%
 
 
Figure 4p: Effect of residence status on medicinal plant sources of supply  
 
 70 
There is also a significant difference (p=0.002792) between residence status and the 
number of sources of supply (Fig. 4q). Non-native respondents have more choices 
( X =1.6622±0.8645) than native respondents ( X =1.1538±0.4315).  
 
Mann-Whitney U p=0.002792
Vertical bars denote 0.95 confidence intervals
Native Non-native
Residence status
0
1
2
3
4
Nu
mb
er 
of 
so
urc
es
 of
 su
pp
ly
  
Figure 4q: Effect of residence status on the number of medicinal plant sources of supply  
 
Finally, there is a significant difference (p=0.000018) between residence status and the 
frequency of harvesting medicinal plants (Fig. 4r). Native respondents harvest more frequently 
( X =29.1395±18.6316) than non-native respondents ( X =15.3846±5.4879). 
 
 71 
Mann-Whitney U p=0.000018
Vertical bars denote 0.95 confidence intervals
Native Non-native
Residence status
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Fr
eq
ue
nc
y o
f h
arv
es
tin
g p
er 
ye
ar
 
 
Figure 4r: Effect of residence status on the harvesting frequency 
 
4. 2. 5. Income, educational levels and duration of involvement in medicinal plants 
Few of the respondents who are involved in the informal trade of medicinal plants in the 
Cape Peninsula are uneducated. For example, only 6% (n=7) did not receive any formal 
education. The majority of the respondents (63%: n=74) acquired some high school education, 
28% (n=33) attended primary school and only 3% (n=4) attended or are still busy with tertiary 
education (Fig. 4s).  
In terms of the income generated from the sale of medicinal plants, 37% (n=29) of the 
respondents earn less than R500 monthly, 35% (n=28) earn between R501 and R1,000 and only 
15% (n=12) generate more than R2,501 per month from the trade of medicinal plants (Fig. 4t).  
 
 72 
Tertiary, 3%
No formal school, 6%
Primary, 28%
Secondary, 63%
 
 
Figure 4s: Educational levels attained by the respondents 
 
 
>R2500, 15%
R1001-R1500, 7%<R500, 37%
R1501-R2500, 6% R501-R1000, 35%
 
 
Figure 4t: Income generated from the trade of medicinal plants 
 
Eighty percent (n=97) of the respondents have been involved in medicinal plants for less 
than six years, 11% (n=13) have been involved for 6-10 years and only 3% (n=4) have more than 
20 years of involvement (Fig. 4u). There are no significant differences between gender, ethnicity, 
 73 
educational levels, time of involvement, residence status and the income generated from the 
trade of medicinal plants. There are also no correlations between age groups, duration of 
involvement in medicinal plants and the income generated. However, there is a significant 
difference between the income generated through the trade of medicinal plants and the position 
occupied in the trade (Fig. 4v). Shop traders earn more income than collectors/street traders and 
traditional healers. 
 
80%
11%
3% 3% 3%
1-5yrs 6-10yrs 16-20yrs 11-15yrs >21yrs
Duration of involvement
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
No
mb
er 
of 
ob
se
rva
tio
ns
 
 
Figure 4u: Duration of involvement in medicinal plants 
 
 
 74 
 Kruskal-Wallis p<0.01
Vertical bars denote 0.95 confidence intervals
Collect-St trader Traditional healer Shop trader
Involvement category
<500
501-1000
1001-1500
1501-2500
2501+
Inc
om
e (
Ra
nd
)
 
 
Figure 4v: Effects of trade involvement category on the income generated 
 
4. 3. Discussion 
It is well established, in literature, that traditional health practitioners and medicinal 
plants are an important part of cultures and traditions of indigenous people throughout the world 
and Africa in particular (Cunningham, 1993; Fennell et al., 2004; Kamatenesi-Mugisha et al., 
2007). From prehistoric times to present day, medicinal plants have been an important source of 
healthcare; traditional practitioners play significant roles in providing this healthcare in Africa 
(Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1932; Schuster Campbell, 1998). Despite their critical role in rural 
areas, traditional health practitioners are also increasingly providing primary healthcare and 
generating income in urban areas. This is true in the urban areas of the Cape Peninsula where 
many traditional health providers and medicinal plant traders are practising. 
 
4. 3. 1. Cultural and socio-economic considerations as driving factors for the use/trade of 
medicinal plants 
Several reasons explain the involvement of stakeholders in the trade/use of medicinal 
plants in the Cape Peninsula. Cultural motivations are among the reasons for involvement. In 
fact, 82% of the respondents (Table 4a) justified their involvement in the trade or use of 
medicinal plants for cultural reasons, especially provision of healthcare to people by using 
natural remedy. The majority of traditional healers interviewed justified their involvement as a 
 75 
calling from the ancestors. Others reported receiving this call from ancestors after a long period 
of sickness. They believe that medicinal plants will play an important role in African people’s 
lives. This is supported by Schuster Campbell (1998: 4) who, after investigating traditional 
healing in southern Africa, stated that “traditional healing is a deep-rooted part of African life 
and, traditional healers believe, will continue as African culture survives”. Aside from traditional 
healers, Rastafarians are also actively involved in the use and trade of medicinal plants. The use 
of natural food (ital) and herbal remedies is part of their culture. This self-reliance is believed to 
prevent them from consumerism and other modern practices. Unlike the traditional healers, who 
became involved through “spiritual calling”, the Rastafarian knowledge of medicinal plants has 
been handed down orally from father to son or among members of their communities. The 
influence of cultural factors in the use of plants as medicines had already been documented in 
other parts of the world. For example, in Navarra, Akerreta et al. (2007) reported the influence of 
cultural factors over ecological factors (geographic distribution) in selecting plants for medicinal 
use. In surveys conducted by Pieroni (2001) and da Rocha Silva and de Holanda Cavalcante 
Andrade (2006), informants exhibited special preference towards plants culturally believed to 
possess health properties among other wild food plants.  
The importance of biodiversity in sustaining livelihood and alleviating poverty in rural 
areas is widely recognized (Koziell, 2000; Shackleton and Shackleton, 2004; Shackleton et al., 
2007). However, the use of natural resources for subsistence and income generation is not 
restricted to rural communities. Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are increasingly being used 
and traded in urban areas for income generation. This is true for medicinal plant trade in urban 
centres such as Durban (Mander, 1998), Port Elizabeth (Dold and Cocks, 2002), Johannesburg 
(Williams et al., 2000) and in urban areas of the the Cape Peninsula as shown by the present 
study.  
Unemployment and poverty are among the driving factors for informal trade of medicinal 
plants. Indeed, despite the low unemployment level in the Western Cape (18.6% in 2004; 26.2% 
nationally) (Stats SA, 2006), 18% of the Rastafarian respondents (Figure 4m) justified their 
involvement in medicinal plants trade for economic considerations and 76% of the surveyed 
informants were among the unemployed in the formal sector. Seventy-five percent of the 
respondents are fully involved in the trade or activities related to medicinal plants. Eighty-one 
percent of the informants, including those motivated by cultural considerations, have 
 76 
acknowledged making a living through the sale of medicinal plants or medicinal plant-related 
services (Table 4a). In Fisante Kraal, a pensioner who is a traditional healer mentioned the 
insufficiency of his pension grant to meet his family living costs. He reported using his pension 
grant just to cover the transport cost of his medicinal plants from Transkei (former homeland) to 
his location and that the bulk of his revenue is derived from fees paid by patients. In Paarl, a 
male Rastafarian collector/street trader reported the trade of medicinal plants as his unique 
option for feeding his family. He mentioned that he was arrested several times in the past by 
conservation agencies and private landowners for illegal harvesting, but reaffirmed carrying on 
with that activity as it was the only source of income generation. This denotes the fact that, 
despite the risks that they may face, people whose subsistence depends on harvesting and trading 
products from the natural environment would continue to do so in the absence of job 
opportunities regardless of any associated risks. A similar case has been documented by 
Williams (2002) in a survey of medicinal plant trade in Faraday Market in Johannesburg. A 
widow street trader, who had been arrested several times for collecting cycads, reported to 
continue to do so because her family was more important than the intrinsic value of an ancient 
gymnosperm (cycads).  
It could also be argued that the trade of medicinal plants is a lucrative activity, which 
provides considerable returns to an extent that people involved would not seek other job 
opportunities in the formal sector. The earnings of some informants from the trade of medicinal 
plants are much higher than they would have had in working in any the formal sector. For 
example, a shop owner, in Khayelitsha, has acknowledged making a lot of money from the trade 
of medicinal plants and was not interested in seeking for other jobs in the formal sector.  
Furthermore, households with more dependents and fewer options for realizing 
sustainable livelihoods may rely on natural resources for subsistence and income generation. 
This is validated by Gunatilake et al. (2007) who found that families with more members 
harvested more non-timber forest products to generate extra income necessary to support extra 
subsistence requirements in a rural area. Similarly, Lacuna-Richman (2003) found that 
households with less income, more dependent members and less to spend on food have greater 
incentive to augment their income and food supply with non-wood forest products. In this study, 
the average number of dependents by respondents was 4.150685±1.853459. In the absence of 
any employment opportunities (in the formal sector), as it stands for the majority of the 
 77 
respondents (76%), the trade of non-timber forest products in general and medicinal plants in 
particular may always be an option for income generation. Hence, it is important not to 
underestimate the role that the trade of medicinal plants can play in easing poverty and in 
providing extra income in meeting additional household needs. 
 
4. 3. 2. Influence of Gender on the trade of medicinal plants 
The limited access of women to employment opportunities, particularly in the formal 
market, is reflected in the gap between men’s and women’s unemployment rates (ILO, 2000). 
Worldwide, the unemployment rates of women are higher than those of men. In Africa, for 
example, the rate of unemployment for women is double than that of men and this has been 
increasing. About 24.1 % of women compared to 11.7% of men were unemployed in urban 
Kenya in 1991. For the same year, the rate of women’s unemployment was 9.3% as compared to 
8% of men in South Africa (ILO, 2000). In South Africa, the high rate of unemployment for 
women was partially due to the decline in employment in the agricultural sector since 1970 and 
stagnation in employment in manufacturing industry where women were the dominant workers 
(Mohr, 1998; Aliber, 2003). Despite not being the first provider of employment in the Western 
Cape Province, in 2002, the number of casual and seasonal women workers was higher than full-
time employees in the agricultural sector. There were 63,472 full-time male workers for 28,894 
women and 58,394 casual and seasonal male workers for 66,574 women (Stats SA, 2006). These 
limited employment opportunities in the formal sector, combined with low levels of return may 
have pushed women to engage in self-employment such as subsistence agriculture, small 
artisanal work and the urban informal trade of medicinal plant.  
According to Debroux (2002), worldwide, the most part of informal workers are women. 
This trend is also noticeable in South Africa. The Labour Force Survey of September 2004 
shows that the number of women involved in informal sector was higher than that of men (Stats 
SA, 2006). However, in the Western Cape, the converse appears to be the case: the percentage of 
men involved in the informal sector was more than double that of women. Although not to the 
same extent, men (56%) dominate the informal trade of medicinal plants in the Cape Peninsula. 
The striking point is that almost all the respondents in the categories of collectors/street traders 
were men (Figure 4j). This could be explained by the fact that collection of medicinal plants in 
the Cape Peninsula may be a risky task for women. In fact, most of the plants are found in the 
 78 
mountains, which necessitate physical efforts. In addition, some of the plants used are grown on 
private fenced lands, which increase the likelihood of being caught by landowners. In 
Mpumalanga and the Limpopo provinces, Botha (2001) reported the prevalence of men in the 
trade of medicinal plants. On the contrary, in KwaZulu-Natal, Johannesburg and other parts of 
Africa, women dominate as gatherers and suppliers of urban markets (Cunningham, 1993; 
Mander, 1998).  
In addition, the outcomes of this study show a relationship between gender and the 
number of dependents. Female respondents have more dependents to take care of than males 
(Figure 4b). Despite the fact that this was not an option in the questionnaire, some women 
reported being the head of their household. Thus, in the absence of formal job opportunities, 
these responsibilities could justify their engagement in the informal trade of medicinal plants to 
satisfy their household needs. Indeed, the general household survey of July 2004 found that of 
the 139,683 households living in the informal dwellings in the Western Cape, 104,385 were 
headed by males and 34,845 by females (Stat SA, 2006). Furthermore, according to ILO (2000), 
the implication of women in self-informal activities is also motivated by the loss or the reduction 
of income earned by their partners in the formal sectors. This might be the case for some of the 
female informants in this study. 
Finally, male informants are significantly younger than females (Figure 4c). Although the 
difference is not statistically significant, the number of years of selling or dealing with medicinal 
plants is higher for women than men. This suggests that men start earlier and they do not stay 
long (except for traditional healers) in the trade, while women start late and stay longer. In a 
study on gender analysis of forest products market in Cameroon, Ruiz Perez et al. (2003) found 
the same pattern. They attributed this late involvement of women to the heavy demands of 
childbearing and the earlier involvement of men to effects of economic crisis and subsequent loss 
of unemployment.  
 
4. 3. 3. Influence of age and income  
Various age groups are represented in the trade of medicinal plants in the Cape Peninsula. 
The majority of people (75%) fall in the category 20-50 years old, which represents the 
economically active population (Table 4b & Figure 4d). However, the lack of job opportunities 
in the formal sector, especially for young who constitute 12% of the sample, makes the trade of 
 79 
medicinal plants an important income generating activity. An interesting observation from this 
study is that the position occupied in the trade of medicinal is age-dependent. For example, none 
of those above 51 years old was found among gatherers/street sellers. In the same way, only two 
informants within 20-30 years old were traditional healers; the rest of this group consisted of 
people above 30 years old. The absence of older people as collectors/street traders could be 
explained by the fact that collecting wild plants is a labour-intensive activity that requires 
physical strength and good health, conditions which the older people may not fulfil. This is true 
for people sourcing their stock of medicinal plants from the Cape Peninsula vegetation. During 
the fieldwork made for the collection of samples, it was found that most of the traded species 
were collected from mountainous areas. The physical strength requirement was also true for 
Prunus Africana bark harvesters in Cameroon (Cunningham and Mbenkum, 1993). In, fact they 
reported that activity, requiring hard work, was suitable for young people and no women were 
involved.  
In terms of income, only 35% of the informants earn R500 or less per month, compared 
to the 57% of traders at the Faraday Medicinal Plant Market who earned R100 or less per week 
(about R400 per month) (Williams, 2002). Although there was no significant correlation between 
the income generated from the trade of medicinal plants and the age, there is at least a trend in 
the income decreases with increasing age (Figure 4g).This outcome is converse to that found by 
Nkuna (2004) on woodcraft traders in the Hazyview area. Innovation in products, skills and 
experience were the explanations to that income disparity among informants of different age 
groups. In the present study, the declining trend in income for old respondents may be due to the 
decrease in harvesting frequency caused by aging. However, older informants are more fully 
involved (Figure 4e) and 3% have more than 21 years of involvement (Figure 4u). They tend to 
know more harvesting places as opposed to younger respondents (Figure 4e & 4f). This does not 
necessarily imply that older respondents, fully involved, know more medicinal plants than 
younger people who are partly involved, as this was not an option in the questionnaire. However, 
in rural Dominica, Quinlan and Quinlan (2007) found that the number of medicinal plants listed 
by informants increased with age. Apart from the age, 3% of the respondents (Figure 4u) have 
more than 21 years of involvement, which can help in providing useful insights into species 
scarcity as well as geographical distribution, hence enhance the sustainable utilisation of traded 
species.  
 80 
Notwithstanding, the income generated from the trade varies with the position of the 
informant in the medicinal plant trade. Shop traders enjoy most of the trade in medicinal plants, 
with traditional healers lying at the bottom (Figure 4v). The average monthly shop traders’ 
income is between R1,001 and R2,500, which is above the average income of certain people 
working in the public sector. Conversely, the majority of traditional healers and the majority of 
all respondents earn less than R1,001. This difference in income may be partially explained by 
the size of the business and the location of the activity. Most of the medicinal plant shops 
surveyed are located in densely populated areas such as Khayelitsha. Shops were close to the 
main roads and the number of species traded was higher than those found in traditional healers’ 
premises. In addition, some products sold in those shops were packaged, adding some value. 
Street traders’ travel between towns to sell their goods and as a result they are present in strategic 
places such as train and bus stations. In Kraaifontein, a female street trader, working in 
conjunction with her partner, mentioned travelling to other provinces to sell her semi-processed 
and raw material. On the contrary, most traditional healers practise in fixed premises; their main 
purpose is to provide health and money comes naturally in the process of meeting this healthcare 
need. In Grabouw, for example, some traditional healers reported treating patients in exchange 
for some other goods. Others mentioned treating patients first and collecting fees later according 
to the ability of patients to pay. This may explain their position at the bottom of earning. 
 
4. 3. 4. Influence of ethnicity and area of birth on the trade of medicinal plants 
The informal trade of medicinal plants in the Cape Peninsula is primarily a domain of 
black and coloured communities. Coloured respondents, who are all Rastafarians, are involved in 
the use and trade of medicinal plants at earlier stages than the black Africans surveyed in this 
study (Figure 4h). This precocious involvement may be explained by their status as natives of the 
Western Cape Province, which may confer upon them the knowledge of useful plants in their 
environment. In addition, living in harmony with nature is one of the central ideas of 
Rastafarianism. An important aspect of Rastafarian lifestyle is the natural diet which they adhere 
to. The diet of the Rastafarians consists of organic and vegetarian foods. Herbal medicines are 
widely used within Rastafarian communities. The general belief among Rastafarians is that there 
is no illness for which nature provides no cure. Wild bushes and leaves from trees are prepared in 
teas and juices, which are aimed at the alleviation of certain symptoms, including headaches, 
 81 
colds and others. This environmentally sound lifestyle, that others around the world are only now 
beginning to strive for, complies with those that are currently prescribed by ecologists and 
environmentalists.  
Rastafarians are also marginalised in the formal sector as they are often discriminated 
against as growers and smokers of marijuana; others consider them as violent people. This 
inappropriate label often causes hardships for Rastafarians in finding jobs in the formal sector, 
thereby encouraging informal sectors such as the trade of medicinal plants. This difficulty was 
mentioned by many Rastafarian respondents. Kitzinger (1966) had also noticed these difficulties 
that Rastafarians encounter in finding jobs in Jamaica. Recognizing the high rate of 
unemployment, she noticed that Rastafarians tended to be the last to be employed and the first to 
be fired. Therefore, this value placed on natural world, combined with their marginalisation in 
the formal sector may lead to their earlier involvement in medicinal plant usage and trade. 
These data have also revealed that ethnicity and birth status influence the source of traded 
medicinal plants (Figure 4k & 4p). Eighty-two percent of the coloured respondents exclusively 
source their medicinal plants from the Western Cape vegetation, while only 9% of the black 
respondents do so. Thirty-five percent of the black respondents exclusively harvest their 
medicinal plants in the Eastern Cape Province. Furthermore, 40% of the black respondents 
secure their medicinal plants stock from both the Western Cape Province and from the 
neighbouring Eastern Cape Province. In Tsitsikamma, Faasen and Watts (2007) found that more 
native members of the communities, without any alternative livelihoods, were more opposed to 
the policy of “no take” fishing introduced by the SANParks than the non-natives. This supports 
the general perception that economically vulnerable members of communities depend more on 
local natural resources and highlights the fact that they are the most affected when the resource is 
depleted or banned from harvesting.  
Furthermore, the native respondents’ dependency on local environmental assets is further 
stressed by their high frequency of harvesting compared to the non-native respondents (Figure 
4r). However, this low frequency of harvesting by the non-native respondents does not 
necessarily imply that they are experiencing a shortage of the stock, but emphasizes their 
diversity of sources of supply. Data from this study show that non-native respondents have an 
average number of supply sources of 1.6622±0.8645 compared to 1.1538±0.4315 for native 
respondents (Figure 4q). This low frequency of harvesting by non-natives may also denote the 
 82 
fact that when they harvest, big quantities of plant materials are extracted (Chapter 3; Photo 8). It 
has been noted that few native respondents could afford to procure their stock from other 
provinces. This shows the difference in financial power among the members of the same 
community and in line with the findings of Cardenas et al. (2002). They realised that the richer 
members of a community, those with more valuable alternatives, put less pressure on the local 
environment than their less-advantaged neighbours. KwaZulu-Natal, Gauteng Province, 
Northern Cape, Swaziland and Lesotho, are other source regions of medicinal plants used and 
traded in the Cape Peninsula.  
The majority (48%) of the black respondents enjoy the trade of medicinal plants 
throughout the year, while only 28% of the coloured respondents do so. The majority (50%) of 
the coloured respondents have better returns from the trade of medicinal plants in winter (Figure 
4l). According to their explanations, this trend is driven by the upsurge of certain ailment such as 
cold and flu due to the change in season and the availability of certain used species (annuals) 
during the winter period.  
Furthermore, the data from this investigation show relationships between ethnicity, areas 
of birth, and the number of dependents. Non-native black respondents have more members to 
take care of ( X =4.7755±1.5037) than the native coloured respondents ( X =2.875±1.853459) 
(Figure 4j & 4o). In Khayelitsha, a female shop trader reported supporting her family back home 
in Transkei from the trade of medicinal plants on the Cape Flats. Williams (2002) reported a 
similar case at the Faraday Medicinal Plants Market in Johannesburg. A 40-50-year woman 
reported supporting her husband and three children back home in KwaZulu-Natal from the 
income generated from the sale of medicinal plants. In addition, it has been documented that 
about 70% of South Africans live in rural areas and 26% of their incomes come from remittances 
from urban centres. In the former homelands, where the majority of interviewed traditional 
healers came from, the average household size and monthly income were 7 persons and R650, 
respectively (South African Government, 2000). The need to provide for a larger number of 
dependents and high levels of poverty in rural areas appear to be the primary factor causing rural 
to urban migration in the Cape Peninsula area. 
 
 
 
 83 
4. 4. Conclusion 
Although the majority of the people involved in the trade of medicinal plants in the Cape 
Peninsula are culturally motivated, a considerable proportion of them acknowledged making a 
living from the sale of natural resources. Unemployment and the need to provide for a large 
number of dependents seem to be the driving factors for this trade. Ethnicity and residence status 
influence the source of plants used in the trade. Incomes generated are related to the involvement 
category in the trade, which in turn, may be influenced by the age of stakeholders. 
 
 84 
Chapter 5: Constraints and opportunities for conserving medicinal plants in 
the Cape Peninsula 
 
5. 1. Introduction 
Today, most of South Africa’s urban and rural communities rely on medicinal plants for 
their primary healthcare needs and also for income generation (Mander, 1998; Fennell et al., 
2004; Shackleton and Shackleton, 2004; Shackleton et al., 2007). Despite this critical role in 
meeting primary healthcare needs and offering of alternative income source, medicinal plants are 
facing an unprecedented extinction threat as most of the traded medicinal plant materials are 
destructively being harvested from wild populations (WHO, 1993; Williams et al., 2000; Mander 
and Le Breton, 2005; Keirungi et Fabricus, 2005; Canter et al., 2005; Lange, 2006; Schippmann 
et al., 2006). Commercial harvesting, often by the poorer members of the communities and 
habitat destruction have been pointed out as the main causes of medicinal plant depletion 
(Schippmann et al., 2006; Williams et al., 2007). This, in turn, is threatening the entire 
traditional health systems as well as lives and livelihoods of millions of people in developing 
countries (Maundu et al., 2004). Consequently, cultivation and sustainable harvesting have been 
suggested as means to reduce the pressure on some wild population of medicinal plants 
(Cunningham 1993; WHO/IUCN/WWF, 1993; Geldenhuys, 2004; Canter et al., 2005; Keirungi 
and Fabricius, 2005; Schippmann et al., 2006; Wiersum et al., 2006).  
However, apart from biological and ecological requirements (soil, interaction with 
pollinators and other species, slow growth rates, low germination rates) (Schippmann et al., 
2006), economic returns to farmers, social and cultural considerations of resource users are other 
key factors determining whether cultivation would be practical (Mander, 1998; Cunningham et 
al., 2002; Keirungi and Fabricius 2005). Local beliefs, the attitudes of resource users toward 
cultivated medicinal plants and the economic potential of medicinal plants that can be brought 
into cultivation need to be assessed before any cultivation initiative. 
Accordingly, this chapter attempts to: (1) capture the opinions of traditional healers, 
traders and collectors on cultivation and cultivated medicinal plants; (2) assess informants’ 
awareness on medicinal plant depletion; (3) understand the dynamics of medicinal plant 
demands; (4) assess the availability of substitutes for the most traded/used species; and (5) to 
determine resource users’ awareness on the protection status of traded/used medicinal plants. 
 85 
These objectives are premised on Cunningham’s (2001) observation that resource users are often 
aware of resource scarcities long before conservationists. This is because they are familiar with 
their local vegetation (Cunningham, 2001). 
 
5. 2. Results 
 The following sub-sections present the findings of the last objective of the study. 
Informants’ opinions about medicinal plant depletion, awareness on conservation status of some 
species of medicinal plants and perception on cultivation and cultivated species of medicinal 
plants are objectively presented. In addition, the needs of the respondents and challenges that 
they face on the daily basis in practising medicinal plants-related activities are also presented 
under this results’ section. Procedures used in gathering and analysing data to address this third 
objective of the study are described in Chapter 1, section 1.6. 
 
5. 2. 1. Depletion and protection status awareness 
Awareness on the depletion of medicinal plant species from wild stocks showed 83% 
(n=92) of the respondents to be aware of the problem with only17% (n=19) who have not 
noticed any change in the wild stocks. Forty-eight percent (n=38) of the respondents attributed 
this depletion to over-harvesting, 27% (n=21) of the respondents pointed out bad harvesting 
methods as the main cause of depletion and habitat transformation was reported by 10% (n=8) of 
the respondents. Similarly, 10% of the informants noted increasing number of interest groups, 
while 5% (n=4) reported climate change as a driver in the depletion of medicinal plants (Tab. 
5a). 
Table 5a: Depletion awareness and rationale for the depletion of some medicinal plants  
 
Awareness Rational for depletion Proportion 
 83% (n=92) 
Habitat transformation (agriculture, infrastructure) 10% (n=8) 
Unsustainable harvesting methods employed by collectors 27% (n=21) 
Over-harvesting 48% (n=38) 
Increasing number of interested groups (collectors, traditional 
practitioners and traders) 
10% (n=8) 
Yes 
Other (climate change, fire…) 5% (n=4) 
No  17% (n=19) 
 
 
 86 
Asking about the protection status of traded species, 79% (n=92) of the informants stated 
that they knew the conservation status of some species, while 21% (n=25) did not know (Fig. 
5a). Thirty-eight percent (n=11) of the respondents who were partly involved in the trade of 
medicinal plants did not know the conservation status of traded plants, whereas only 16% (n=13) 
of the respondents fully involved were ignorant of the status of their products. Consequently, 
there is a significant difference (p=0.01618) between the protection status awareness of traded 
species and the time of involvement in the trade of medicinal plants (Fig. 5b). 
 
79%
21%
Yes NO
Awareness on the protection status
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Nu
mb
er 
of 
ob
se
rva
tio
ns
 
 
Figure 5a: Awareness on the protection status of traded/used species 
 
 
 87 
Chi-square test: p=.01618
Awareness on the protection status 
Nu
mb
er 
of 
ob
se
rva
tio
ns
Time of involvement: Full
Yes NO
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Time of involvement: Part
Yes NO
84%
16%
62%
38%
 
 
Figure 5b: Effects of the time of involvement on the protection status awareness of traded 
species 
 
5. 2. 2. Perceptions of the future demand for medicinal plants 
Examining the dynamics of future demand for medicinal plants showed that 80% (n=89) 
of the respondents expected an increase, 12% (n=13) a decrease and 8% (n=9) a stability in the 
current demand. Forty-one percent (n=23) of the respondents attributed the likely increase to the 
growing popularity of traditional healthcare systems and 23% (n=13) to the failure of western 
medicine to cure certain diseases and ailments. Twenty-seven percent (n=15) of the respondents 
attributed this future increase to the ascending number of consumers, traditional practitioners and 
commercial collectors. The remaining 9% (n=5) pointed out poverty and the high price of 
western drugs as the probable causes for future increase in demand. Among the 12% of the 
respondents who predicted a decrease in demand, scarcity of certain species (45%: n=4), 
decreased access to the natural resources (33%: n=3) and the cost of transport (22%: n=2) were 
mentioned as major reasons for future decrease in supplies of medicinal plants. The justification 
of the respondents who opted for the stability in future demands was not sought (Tab. 5b). 
 
 
 
 
 88 
Table 5b: Dynamics and rationale for future increases or decrease in medicinal plants usage 
 
Dynamics of 
future demand  
Rational for future increase/decrease Proportion  
 80%(n=89) 
Increasing popularity of traditional medicine healthcare systems 41% (n=23) 
Increasing number of stakeholders: patients, traditional healers, 
collectors and traders 
27% (n=15) 
Failure of western medicine to cure certain diseases and ailments 23% (n=13) 
Increase 
Poverty and high price of western drugs 9% (n=5)  
Decrease  12% (n=13) 
Scarcity of some medicinal plants in the wild 45% (n=4) 
Decreased access to the wild (protected areas) 33% (n=3) 
 
Poverty and increasing cost of transport 22% (n=2) 
Same  8% (n=9) 
 
Furthermore, when the respondents were asked to compare the quantities of medicinal 
plants that they are currently trading to that in the past, 66% (n=70) stated an increase, 6% (n=6) 
a decline and 28% (n=30) did not see any change (Fig. 5c). The respondents who stated a 
decrease or a stability in current demand compared to the past believed that there would be an 
increase in demand in the future. In fact, among the 28% (n=30) of the respondents who did not 
see any change between the current and past demands, 59% (n=13) predicted a future increase in 
demand. Similarly, among the 6% (n=6) of the respondents who stated a decrease in the current 
demand with regard to the past, 67% (n=4) believed in a future increase. As a result, there is a 
significant difference (p=0.00734) between the perceived past and current demands (Fig. 5d).  
 
 89 
66%
28%
6%
Increase Same Decrease
Past vs current
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Nu
mb
er
 of
 ob
se
rva
tio
ns
 
 
Figure 5c: Informant perceptions on current demand compared to the past 
 
 
Chi-square test: p=.00734
Future trend of demand for medicinal plants
Nu
mb
er 
of 
ob
se
rva
tio
ns
Past vs current: Increase
Increase Decrease Same
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Past vs current: Same
Increase Decrease Same
Past vs current: Decrease
Increase Decrease Same
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
87%
10%
3%
59%
14% 27%
67% 33% 0%
  
Figure 5d: Informant perceptions on future demand compared to current  
 
There is also a significant difference (p=0.0276) between the income generated from the 
trade and the reasons proposed for future increase in demand for medicinal plants (Fig. 5e). 
Respondents with high incomes attributed the future increase to the increasing number of interest 
 90 
groups, while those with low incomes attributed it to the failure of western medicine to cure 
certain diseases. 
 
Kruskal-Wallis test: p=.0276
Vertical bars denote 0.95 confidence intervals
Increased interest groups
High price of western drugs
TM popularity
Western medicine failure
Rational for future increase in demand for medicinal plants
<500
501-1000
1001-1500
1501-2500
2501-3000
3001+
Inc
om
e (
Ra
nd
)
  
Figure 5e: Effects of income on justifications for future increases in demand for medicinal plants 
 
5. 2. 3. Perceptions on the depletion of medicinal plants 
Assembling the informants’ opinions on what they would do if traded species could no 
longer be found in their current harvesting places showed that 84% (n=92) of them thought that 
they would seek for other places (some of them are already doing so), 11% (n=12) of them 
would close down their medicinal plant-related activities and 5% (n=6) of them believed that 
medicinal plant stocks are inexhaustible irrespective of harvesting pressure (Fig. 5f). Eighty-
three percent (n=95) of the respondents mentioned the existence and the use of substitutes for 
some medicinal plant species (Fig. 5g). 
 
 91 
84%
5%
11%
Search other places Not possible Close down
Complete depletion
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Nu
mb
er 
of 
ob
se
rva
tio
ns
 
 
Figure 5f: Perceptions on complete depletion of medicinal plants 
 
83%
17%
Yes NO
Use of substitutes
0
20
40
60
80
100
Nu
mb
er 
of 
ob
se
rva
tio
ns
 
 
Figure 5g: Use of substitutes for the most traded/used medicinal plant species 
 
It is worth noting that there is a significant difference (p=0.03247) between the time of 
involvement and the use of substitutes. For example, 31% (n=9) of the respondents partly 
involved in the trade of medicinal plants did not use substitutes at all, whereas only 13% (n=11) 
of those fully involved in the trade and use reported this practice (Fig. 5h).  
 92 
Chi-square test: p=.03247
Use of substitute 
Nu
mb
er
 of
 ob
se
rva
tio
ns
Full-time involvement
Yes NO
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Part-time involvement
Yes NO
87%
13%
69%
31%
 
 
Figure 5h: Effects of time of involvement on the use of substitutes 
 
There is also a significant difference (p=0.00681) between ethnicity and the opinions 
about the depletion of medicinal plants (Fig. 5i). None of the coloured respondents disagreed 
with the eventuality of complete depletion, while 8% (n=6) of the black respondents refuted it. In 
the same vein, there is a significant difference (p=0.002) between residence status (areas of birth) 
and opinions on complete depletion of medicinal plants in their current harvesting sites. Again, 
none of the native respondents denied this eventuality, but 9% (n=6) of the non-natives refuted 
the prospect of extinction of medicinal plants in the wild (Fig. 5j). 
 
 93 
Chi-square test: p=.00681
Complete depletion
Nu
mb
er 
of 
ob
se
rva
tio
ns
Ethnicity: C
Search other places
Not possible
Close down
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Ethnicity: B
Search other places
Not possible
Close down
97%
0% 3%
77%
8%
15%
 
 
Figure 5i: Ethnicity and perceptions on complete depletion of medicinal plants 
 
 
Chi-square test: p=.00200
Complete depletion
Nu
mb
er 
of 
ob
se
rva
tio
ns
Residence status: Native
Search other places
Not possible
Close down
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Residence status: Non-native
Search other places
Not possible
Close down
98%
0% 2%
75%
9%
16%
  
Figures 5j: Residence status and perceptions on complete depletion of medicinal plants 
 
Furthermore, there is a significant difference (p=0.0046) between the position occupied 
in the trade and the perceptions on complete depletion of medicinal plants. None of the 
collectors/street traders refuted this possibility, whereas five traditional healers and one shop 
trader dismissed the livelihood of extinction. Among the respondents who would close down 
 94 
medicinal plant business, 50% (n=6) were shop traders, 42% (n=5) were traditional healers and 
8% (n=1) was a collector/street trader (Fig. 5k). 
 
Chi-square test: p=.00460
Involvement category in the trade
Nu
mb
er 
of 
ob
se
rva
tio
ns
Complete depletion: Search other places
Collector/St traders
Traditional Healers
Shop traders
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Complete depletion: Not possible
Collector/St traders
Traditional Healers
Shop traders
Complete depletion: Close down
Collector/St traders
Traditional Healers
Shop traders
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
38%
49%
13%
0%
83%
17%
8%
42% 50%
  
Figure 5k: Engagement category in the trade and perceptions on complete depletion of medicinal 
plants  
 
5. 2. 4. Willingness to buy cultivated medicinal plants 
An encouraging fact is that 78% (n=92) of the respondents expressed their willingness to 
buy cultivated medicinal plants, with only 22% (n=26) of the respondents who were reluctant to 
purchase cultivated species. Among the reasons mentioned for buying cultivated medicinal 
plants, 74% (n=45) would like to meet the growing demand and 18% (n=11) wanted to avoid 
conflicts with private land owners and protected area managers and to cut down traveling costs. 
The lack of healing power (38%: n=8), abundance of medicinal plants in the wild (24%: n=5), 
uncertainty on growing conditions (24%: n=5), cultural beliefs (9%: n=2) and uncertainty on 
price of cultivated species (n=1) were mentioned as reasons for not purchasing (Tab. 5c). This 
variability in responses is reflected in the significant difference (p=0.01223) between the 
willingness of informants to purchase cultivated medicinal plants and their means of supply for 
medicinal plants. All the respondents (n=8) who are currently buying their stocks from gatherers 
expressed willingness to purchase cultivated stocks. Only 11% (n=4) of those who are currently 
sourcing some of their stocks from the wild, home gardens and other collectors were not willing 
to buy cultivated medicinal plants. The bulk of respondents (29%: n=22) who would not buy 
 95 
cultivated species are those who exclusively harvest their stocks from the wild populations (Fig. 
5l). 
 
Table 5c: Willingness and rationale for buying or not buying cultivated medicinal plants 
 
Willingness to 
buy 
Rationales for buying/not buying Proportion  
 78% (n=92) 
Meet the increasing demand for some medicinal plants 
species that becoming scarce 
74% (n=45) 
Avoid traveling and/or collection from private lands and 
protected areas 
18% (n=11) 
Yes 
Other 8% (n=5) 
 22% (n=26) 
Cultivated medicinal plant species lack healing power 38% (n=8) 
Medicinal plants are abundant in the wild 24% (n=5) 
Uncertainty on growing conditions (use of pesticides) 24% (n=5) 
Cultural beliefs not do not allow to purchase medicinal 
plants (cultivated or wild collections) 
9% (n=2) 
No 
Uncertainty on prices of cultivated plants 5% (n=1) 
 
 
Chi-square test: p=.01223
Willingness to buy cultivated medicinal plants
Nu
mb
er 
of 
ob
se
rva
tio
ns
Means of supply: Wild collection
Yes NO
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Means of supply: Wild collect/home/buy
Yes NO
Means of supply: Buy 
Yes NO
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
71%
29%
89%
11%
100%
0%
 
 
Figure 5l: Means of supply and willingness to buy cultivated medicinal plants 
 
 
 
 
 96 
5. 2. 5. Willingness to grow some medicinal plant species 
Ninety-four percent (n=111) of the research respondents stated that they would cultivate 
some of their most used species if seeds were freely provided. Only 6% (n=7) stated that they 
would not cultivate medicinal plants even if seeds were freely provided to them. Thirty-six 
percent (n=29) of the respondents motivated their willingness to meet the growing demand and 
34% (n=28) to avoid collection from private land and protected areas and also to reduce traveling 
cost. Fourteen percent (n=11) of the respondents would grow medicinal plants provided that a 
piece of land was given to them. Furthermore, 12% (n=10) of the respondents justified the 
interest in home gardens and the remaining 4% (n=3) stated that they were undertaking cultural 
preservation by planting natural remedies. Those who refused to grow medicinal plants pointed 
out the lack of healing power in cultivated species and the absence of land (Tab. 5d).  
 
Table 5d: Willingness and rationale for growing or not growing medicinal plants if seed are 
freely provided 
 
Willingness Rationale  Proportion 
 94% (n=111) 
Meet the increasing demand for some medicinal plants  36% (n=29) 
Avoid traveling and/or collection from private lands and 
protected areas 
34% (n=28) 
Meet the increasing demand for some medicinal plants 
species and avoid going to private lands and protected areas 
(provided there is a piece of land for cultivation) 
14% (n=11) 
Already involved in medicinal plants home garden 12% (n=10) 
Yes 
Cultural preservation 4% (n=3) 
 6% (n=7) 
Cultivated medicinal plants lack healing power 67% (n=2) 
No 
There is no land to undertake cultivation 33% (n=1) 
 
A significant difference (p=0.01938) exists between ethnicity and the willingness to 
cultivate some medicinal plants if seeds are freely provided (Fig. 5m). Nine percent (n=7) of the 
black respondents rejected the idea of cultivation, whereas all the coloured respondents 
supported this alternative. Similarly, there is a significant difference (p=0.00915) between 
residence status and the willingness to cultivate medicinal plants if seeds are freely provided. 
None of the native respondents rejected the proposition for cultivating medicinal plants, while 
9% (n=7) of the non-natives were reluctant (Fig. 5n).  
 
 97 
Chi-square test: p=.01938
Willingness to grow if seeds are freely provided
Nu
mb
er 
of 
ob
se
rva
tio
ns
Ethnicity: C
Yes NO
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Ethnicity: B
Yes NO
100%
0%
91%
9%
 
 
Figure 5m: Effects of ethnicity on the willingness to cultivate freely supplied seeds of medicinal 
plants 
 
Chi-square test: p=.00915
Willingness to grow if seeds are freely provided
Nu
mb
er 
of 
ob
se
rva
tio
ns
Residence status: Native
Yes NO
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Residence status: Non-native
Yes NO
100%
0%
91%
9%
  
Figure 5n: Effects of residence status on the willingness to cultivate freely supplied seeds of 
medicinal plants 
 
There is also a significant difference (p=0.0185) between the sources of supply and the 
willingness to grow medicinal plants. None of the respondents sourcing their stocks from the 
Western Cape and other regions including KwaZulu-Natal, Swaziland and Lesotho declined the 
 98 
idea of cultivation. Contrarily, 17% (n=4) of the respondents deriving their stocks from the 
Eastern Cape Province and 8% (n=3) of respondents gathering their stocks from both the Eastern 
Cape and Western Cape provinces expressed reluctance to the cultivation of medicinal plants 
(Fig. 5o). 
 
Chi-square test: p=.01850
Willingness to grow if seeds are freely provided
Nu
mb
er 
of 
ob
se
rva
tio
ns
Source of supply: WC
Yes NO
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Source of supply: EC&WC
Yes NO
Source of supply: Other
Yes NO
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Source of supply: EC
Yes NO
100%
0%
92%
8%
100%
0%
83%
17%
  
Figure 5o: Sources of supply and willingness to cultivate freely supplied seeds of medicinal 
plants 
 
5. 2. 6. Challenges and needs  
The respondents who were surveyed in this study expressed some needs and problems 
that they experienced on a daily basis in practicing medicinal plant-related activities. Thirty-six 
percent (n=40) of the participants expressed the need for land for cultivation, 32% (n=36) noted 
the difficulties of obtaining harvesting permits and license for street dealership. Fifteen percent 
(n=17) wanted financial and infrastructural support, 14% (n=15) desired the promotion of 
traditional medicine and collaboration with western medicine. Most importantly, 3% (n=4) of the 
participants would like the implementation of environmental education and training on 
sustainable harvesting techniques (Tab. 5e).  
 
 
 
 99 
Table 5e: Needs and Challenges  
 
Supports needed in order to improve the business Proportion 
Financial support and infrastructures 15% (n=17) 
Easy obtaining of permit to harvest in protected areas and license to sell on the 
street 
32% (n=36) 
Traditional medicine promotion and collaboration with western medicine 14% (n=15) 
Provision of land for cultivation of some medicinal plant species 36% (n=40) 
Environmental education and training on sustainable harvesting methods 3% (n=4) 
 
There is a significant difference (p=0.00094) between the expressed needs and the 
engagement category in the trade. None of the shop traders mentioned the desire for land for 
cultivation as a concern. Financial and infrastructural supports were the main concerns. 
Collectors/street-traders and traditional healers expressed interest in all the above mentioned 
needs (Fig. 5p). It is worth noting that 81% (n=35) of the respondents native to the Western Cape 
noted the presence of outside collectors in their harvesting places (Fig 5q).  
 
 
Chi-square test: p=.00094
Engagement category in the trade
Nu
mb
er 
of 
ob
se
rva
tio
ns
Need: Infrasture/finance
Collect/St trad.
Trad heal.
Shop trad.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
Need: Permit/license
Collect/St trad.
Trad heal.
Shop trad.
Need: T M. promotion
Collect/St trad.
Trad heal.
Shop trad.
Need: Land for cultivation
Collect/St trad.
Trad heal.
Shop trad.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
Need: Other
Collect/St trad.
Trad heal.
Shop trad.
24%
35% 41%
33%
50%
17%
13%
80%
7%
40%
60%
0%
67% 33%
0%
 
 
Figure 5p: Involvement category in the trade of medicinal plants and the needs of the 
respondents 
 
 100 
81%
19%
Yes NO
Presence of non-residents
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Nu
mb
er 
of 
ob
se
rva
tio
ns
 
 
Figure 5q: Presence of outsider gatherers 
 
5. 3. Discussion 
It is well established that education, including both formal and informal education, public 
awareness and training is indispensable in changing people’s attitudes, promoting sustainable 
development and improving the capacity of the people to address environmental and 
development issues (UNCSD, 1992; CBD; 1992). It is also widely acknowledged that indigenous 
people and their communities, due to the historical relationship with their lands and natural 
resources, are aware of the status of their natural resources (Cunningham, 2001; Shanley and 
Luz, 2003). Accordingly, the following sections assess and discuss local people’s perceptions on 
the abundance of medicinal plants, protection status of traded species and perceptions on 
cultivation and cultivated medicinal plants in the Cape Peninsula, South Africa. 
 
5. 3. 1. Awareness on depletion of medicinal plants 
Local people and resource users are key partners for effective conservation and 
management of valuable plants prone to over-harvesting. Their familiarity with their natural 
environment makes them aware of the status of their resources long before conservationists 
(Cunningham, 2001; Shanley and Luz, 2003; Shukla and Gardner, 2006). Consistent with this 
observation, the majority (83%) of the respondents acknowledged a decline in the proportion of 
certain medicinal plants and 75% of them attributed this decline to over-harvesting and poor 
 101 
harvesting methods. Over-harvesting and harvesting methods have often been cited among 
causes of medicinal plant scarcity. For example, in the Faraday Medicinal Plant Market in 
Johannesburg, one-third of medicinal plant traders admitted over-harvesting as the main reason 
for medicinal plant scarcity (Williams, 2002). In the Amatola region in the Eastern Cape 
Province, respondents mentioned over-harvesting (80%) and poor harvesting methods (15%) as 
driving factors to medicinal plants decimation (Wiersum et al., 2006). In the Eastern Amazonia, 
respondents pointed out destructive harvesting techniques alongside logging as the underlying 
causes of medicinal species scarcity (Shanley and Luz, 2003). Interestingly, in Tanzania, after 
acknowledging their active role in the depletion of medicinal plants, 81.2% of traditional healers 
requested sustainable harvesting training as a means of mitigating further threats to medicinal 
plants (Mahonge et al., 2006). In the present study, only 3% of the respondents showed an 
interest in environmental education and training. Some Rastafarian respondents claimed 
practicing “responsible” harvesting. They argued that only needed quantities are harvested and 
no harvesting takes place during production periods. However, destructive harvesting such as the 
collection of the whole plant or uprooting of some bulbous species is common among harvesters.  
Despite the fact that the majority of the respondents attributed over-harvesting and 
destructive harvesting methods as the main cause of medicinal plant depletion, agriculture, 
forestry plantations, urbanization and invasive alien plants are believed to contribute the most to 
biodiversity loss in the Cape Floristic Region (Latimer et al., 2004; Dalgliesh et al., 2004). These 
factors were revealed by only 10% of the respondents. 
The shift from subsistence to income generation harvesting has been pointed out as the 
main driving force to the over-harvesting of valuable non-timber forest products such as 
medicinal plants (Williams, 2002; Sunderland et al., 2004; Williams et al., 2007). Asking 
informants what they would do if used species could no longer be found in the wild showed that 
84% of them would seek other harvesting locations and only 11% would close down their 
activities if resources become scarce. In the Faraday Market in Johannesburg, when traders of 
medicinal plants were asked the same question, 15% stated that they would find alternative 
employment or become unemployed. Eighty-five percent of them mentioned that they could 
accommodate the shortages and continue trading (Williams, 2002). This implied that they would 
look for other harvesting or supplying places as shown by the 84% of the respondents from this 
study. 
 102 
Of concern to this study is the five percent of the respondents, who are mainly traditional 
healers (83%) and thought that medicinal plant extinction is impossible irrespective of the 
harvesting pressure. Despite the evidence of increasing habitat transformations, combined with 
environmental education programs (CapeNature, 2007), these stakeholders argued that medicinal 
plants are “God’s creation” and as such could not vanish whatever the pressure. This view was 
also mentioned by traders at the Faraday Market. Indeed, when traders were asked what they did 
to ensure that there would be plants to sell in the future, 30% claimed practicing “non-
destructive” harvesting, 20% replied “nothing”, and as in this present study, five percent stated 
that plant scarcity was impossible (Williams, 2002).  
An encouraging fact is that none of the respondents native to the Western Cape Province, 
who would be the most affected by medicinal plant scarcity, refuted the idea of complete 
depletion of medicinal plants in the face of overexploitation. Some of them are currently 
experiencing species scarcity and others have even reported searching for other harvesting 
places. Among the respondents who would close down, 50% are shop traders and 48% are 
traditional healers. All these groups consist of non-native respondents, which partly supports 
their involvement for economic considerations and confirms the view of a rapidly increasing 
urban migration of traditional practitioners to commercialize their services (Cunningham, 1993; 
Sunderland et al., 2004). 
What is interesting from the conservation point of view is that 83% of the respondents 
have mentioned the existence of substitutes for the most used species despite the fact that the 
majority of them did not want to disclose the identities of these substitutes, especially traditional 
healers. Some of the respondents reported that the use of substitutes depends on the ailment to be 
treated. 
This study has also revealed that the knowledge on substitutes is influenced by the time 
of involvement. Thirty-one percent of informants partly involved do not know of any substitute 
to their most traded species compared with only 13% of the respondents who are fully involved 
in the trade of medicinal plants. The time of involvement could justify this trend. Nevertheless, 
the findings of this study contrast with the results found by Quinlan and Quinlan (2007) in rural 
Dominica on knowledge about medicinal plants. In fact, these authors found that respondents 
with commercial occupation (those partly involved in medicinal plants-related activities) were 
more knowledgeable of the concerns around medicinal plants and listed more medicinal plants 
 103 
than did villagers who were fully involved in medicinal plant-related activities. They justified 
this trend by the fact that people who are around much of the time would become more 
knowledgeable, especially about an important topic such as healthcare. 
In addition, despite the fact that the majority (79%) of the informants claimed to know 
the legal protection status of traded medicinal plants through their local associations, media or 
conservation agencies, 38% of the informants partly engaged (compared to only 14% of the 
respondents fully involved) are not aware of the protection status of plants that they are dealing 
with. However, knowing the protection status of some species does not necessarily prevent some 
respondents from trading certain endangered species. Haworthia sp, Ilex mitis, Kniphofia sp and 
Stangeria eriopus are among those protected species (Western Cape Provincial Government, 
2000) which are traded in the Cape Peninsula. 
 
5. 3. 2. Perceptions about the future demand for medicinal plants 
Over the past 50 years, human use of all ecosystem services has grown rapidly, largely to 
meet the increasing demand for food, freshwater, timber, fiber and so forth (Millennium 
Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). In fact, the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment predicts a further 
degradation of these services by 2050. Habitat transformation, over-exploitation, invasive alien 
species, pollution and climate change were pointed out as the most important direct drivers of 
biodiversity loss and ecosystem services degradation worldwide. In agreement with this 
observation, the majority (80%) of the respondents believe in an increase in demand for 
medicinal plants in the future. Even the informants who did not see any change or stated a 
decrease in the current demand with respect to the past predicted an increase in their demand for 
medicinal plants in coming years. This trend was also observed in KwaZulu-Natal (Mander, 
1998). For example, while assessing the dynamics of demand for indigenous medicine, 90% of 
traditional healers and the majority of shop traders reported the demand to remain high. 
Respondents have mentioned several reasons for this expected increase. Forty-one 
percent attributed this increase to the increasing popularity of traditional healing systems; 23% to 
the failure of western medicine to cure certain diseases; 27% to increasing numbers of users, 
practitioners and commercial gatherers; and the remaining 9% to poverty. From his discussions 
and observations of the markets in southern Africa (South Africa, Mozambique, Swaziland, 
Lesotho, and Namibia), Mander (1998) identified five foremost reasons that keep the demand for 
 104 
indigenous medicine high. The factors that pushed up the demand for natural remedies included 
population growth (2.4% per year throughout the southern Africa), the widely held views by 
black community that certain illnesses are culturally related, poverty and insufficient provision 
of western medicinal facilities in rural areas. Specifically to South Africa, he mentioned the 
recent legal recognition of traditional healing systems, after years of discrimination by previous 
apartheid policies, as additional motive for the increase in demand for medicinal plants (Mander, 
1998). Some of the above factors were also mentioned by the informants to justify the ongoing 
increase in the use of medicinal plants, hence traditional healthcare. 
The increasing popularity of traditional healthcare systems is not only discernible in 
southern Africa or South Africa. It is estimated that up to 80% of the population in developing 
countries makes use of traditional healthcare systems for their primary healthcare needs. Still, the 
use of natural remedies through alternative or complementary medicine (CAM) is increasing in 
developed countries. In Germany, for example, which is the centre of international trade for 
medicinal and aromatic plants, 90% of the population has used a natural remedy at some point in 
their life. In Canada, 70% of the population has used complementary medicine at least once 
(WHO, 2006). This trend is also observed in Italy, Switzerland, Australia, United States of 
America and Sweden (Giannelli et al., 2007; Wapf and Busato, 2007; Tiralongo and Wallis; 
2008; A Lie and Boker, 2006; Sundberg et al., 2007). Moreover, in those developed countries, 
there is an increasing interest in integrating complementary/alternative medicine instruction into 
allopathic (conventional) medical education. In Germany, between 1995 and 2000, the number 
of doctors who had undergone special training in natural remedy had almost doubled (WHO; 
2006). In the USA, medical students demonstrated positive attitudes towards the introduction and 
the integration of CAM into allopathic medical education (A Lie and Boker, 2006). In Sweden 
(Sundberg et al., 2007) and North America (Vohra et al., 2005), models for CAM and 
conventional medicine were on route. Consistent with these observations, 14% of the 
respondents mentioned the promotion and the collaboration between traditional medicine and 
conventional medicine as their main needs. In developing countries, successful examples in 
intercultural health are given by Suriname and Ecuador (Mignone et al., 2007). 
Relating to the increasing number of consumers, traditional practitioners and commercial 
gatherers, Mander and Le Breton (2005) estimated up to 100 million consumers of traditional 
remedies and as many as 500,000 traditional healers in southern Africa. Up to 70,000 tons of 
 105 
plant material, estimated up to US$ 150 million, are consumed per annum. In South Africa, 
20,000 tons of medicinal plants material, valued at US$60 million (R 270 million), is being 
consumed by about 27 million people annually. Furthermore, in KwaZulu-Natal alone, up to 
30,000 of people are deriving incomes from the trade of non timber forest products (NTFPs), 
including medicinal plants (Mander, 1998). Given the fact that the bulk of traded species is 
coming from wild populations, cultivation and sustainable harvesting are urgently needed. 
 
5. 3. 3. Perceptions about cultivation and cultivated medicinal plant species 
The huge pressure created by the commercial wild collection of medicinal plants has 
motivated certain stakeholders to suggest cultivation as an alternative to wild procurement 
(Cunningham 1993; WHO/IUCN/WWF, 1993; Geldenhuys, 2004; Canter et al., 2005; Keirungi 
and Fabricius, 2005; Wiersum et al., 2006). However, social, economic and cultural conditions 
of resource users are believed to influence the success and the feasibility of medicinal plant 
cultivation (Mander, 1998; Keirungi and Fabricius 2005). It was therefore important to 
understand how traditional healers, traders and other medicinal plant users felt about cultivated 
species before suggesting cultivation programs. 
Investigating the informants’ perceptions on cultivated medicinal plants showed that 78% 
of the respondents are willing to buy and make use of cultivated species. This attitude of 
stakeholders toward cultivated medicinal plants was also observed in other regions of South 
Africa. For example, in the Eastern Cape Province, 82% of the urban-based healers and 69% of 
clinic patients reported that they would readily make use of cultivated medicinal plants (Dold 
and Cocks, 2002). Again, in the Amatola region of the Eastern Cape Province, 89% of the 
respondents demonstrated their willingness to use cultivated medicinal plants (Wiersum et al., 
2006). At the Faraday Medicinal Plant Market in Johannesburg, Williams (2002) reported that 
80% of traders would buy cultivated medicinal plants provided that they are less expensive than 
the cost of harvesting by themselves or buying from gatherers. Only one respondent evoked the 
high cost of cultivated species as a concern in the present study.  
Ninety-four percent of the respondents would grow some of the most used medicinal 
plants if seeds were freely provided to them. However, among the 94% of the respondents 
willing to grow medicinal plants, 14% tied their willingness to the availability of of land. Land 
was not an issue in Grabouw, where most of the traditional healers have a medicinal plant home 
 106 
garden, but in Paarl and other visited locations land was the major obstacle to domestication. The 
provision of land for cultivation was also mentioned by the majority (36%) of the respondents as 
their main need.  
Informants have mentioned several reasons to justify their willingness to buy cultivated 
medicinal plants and to cultivation. Meeting the increasing demand for some species currently 
under-supplied, cutting traveling cost and avoiding collection from private lands and protected 
areas were the main motivations for 92% of the respondents to buy medicinal plants. The same 
reasons were mentioned by 84% of the respondents who would grow some species of medicinal 
plants. In Cameroon, stakeholders mentioned cash earning among the motivations to engage in 
the planting of Prunus Africana (Cunningham et al., 2002). In the Machakos District of Kenya, 
traveling distance was among the rationale for growing some scarce species in the homestead 
(Musila et al., 2004). 
Apart from guaranteeing a steady source of raw material, as mentioned by the 
respondents, Schippmann et al. (2006) argued that cultivation provides reliable botanical 
identification. Indeed, wild collection often offers adulterated material, especially when the 
supply of a certain species does not follow the demand. This can justify the use of substitutes as 
mentioned by the respondents. For example, in the absence of Alepidea amatymbica, which does 
not grow in the Western Cape, some Rastafarians are using Alepidea delicatula. Both species are 
commonly known as Kalmoes among the Rastafarians. 
Although the majority of the respondents who have displayed a positive attitude towards 
cultivated medicinal plants, 22 respondents were not willing to buy cultivated medicinal plants. 
The majority of them consisted of informants who are currently harvesting all their stock from 
the wild populations. The lack of “healing power” of cultivated medicinal plants is the main 
reason mentioned by the respondents who would not buy or cultivate them if seeds were freely 
granted. Some traditional healers argued that when a species is touched by “impure people” it 
loses its effectiveness and that collection from the wild is an essential part of the ritual. In the 
Amatola region of South Africa, 24% of traditional healers also reported that cultivated 
medicinal plants were highly susceptible to losing their effectiveness when touched by polluted 
people. According to those traditional healers, “polluted people” are those who would handle 
medicinal plants during menstruation, after sexual intercourse, after childbirth and when there is 
a death in the household (Wiersum et al., 2006). In Botswana, traditional medicine practitioners 
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reported that cultivated material was unacceptable due to their lack of power (Cunningham, 
1993). Of more concern are those traditional medical practitioners from the District of Machakos 
in Kenya who argued that it was an abomination to artificially cultivate any naturally growing 
plant (Musila et al., 2004). 
Besides these metaphysical considerations, scientific studies partly support the low 
content of active ingredients in cultivated plants. In fact, active ingredients used for medicinal 
purposes, derive from secondary metabolites. These secondary metabolites which the plants need 
in their natural habitats are synthesized under particular conditions of stress and competition 
which perhaps would not be expressed under monoculture conditions. Consequently, “active 
ingredient levels can be much lower in fast-growing cultivated stocks, whereas wild populations 
can be older due to slow growth rates and can have higher levels of active 
ingredients”(Schippmann et al., 2006: 81). For example, analyses of 144 samples of A. lancea 
with similar morphological features, collected from four sites in the Jiangsu Province in China, 
revealed at least two variations in terms of the presence or absence of various chemical 
constituents (He and Sheng, 1997). Azaizeh et al. (2005) also reported a similar case in Israel. 
This is not to discredit the planting of medicinal plants, as many attempts have been successful, 
but to highlight the complexity of the various issues involved in the conservation and cultivation 
of medicinal plants. 
 
5. 4. Conclusions 
As elsewhere, there is a concern about medicinal plant depletion in the Cape Peninsula. 
The majority of the respondents were aware of the decreasing availability of medicinal plants 
from the wild populations. Although agriculture remains the main driver of biodiversity loss in 
the study area, the majority of the respondents pointed out over-harvesting as the main 
contributing factor to medicinal plants exhaustion instead. Despite this ongoing depletion, the 
majority of respondents predicted an increase in demand and usage for medicinal plants in the 
future. Some interviewed stakeholders mentioned the existence of substitutes for harvested 
species; however, the majority of them did not want to disclose their identities.  
 
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Chapter 6: Conclusions and recommendations 
 
6.1. Introduction 
It has been demonstrated that throughout the world rural households make extensive use 
of biodiversity to fulfil their subsistence requirements and also for income generation 
(Cunningham, 2001; Shackleton and Shackleton, 2004). While the income generated from the 
trade of natural resources may be supplementary for some households, they are often the primary 
source of income for other households (Shackleton and Shackleton; 2004). Medicinal plants are 
among the most actively used and traded plants for income.  
The use and the trade of medicinal plants are no longer restricted to rural households, 
which are often characterised by low income and educational levels. Today, the use and the trade 
of medicinal plants have conquered urban areas and all strata of the society, including high 
income earners and highly educated member of the society (Cunningham, 1993). Harvesting of 
medicinal plants is not generally a problem at village-level consumption (Hamilton et al., 2006). 
However, with the growing population in urban areas, which creates huge demand on resources, 
combined with the massive involvement of commercial harvesters, wild harvesting of medicinal 
plants has become a destructive activity (Cunningham, 1993). Therefore, documenting the 
trade/use by reporting not only priority species, but also profiling resource users along with their 
socio-economic status is perceived to be vital for the sustainable management of biodiversity 
(Cunningham, 2001; Hamilton, 2005).  
In line with the preceding view, this study was initiated to investigate the trade of 
medicinal plants in the Cape Peninsula and its surroundings. Thirteen locations were visited 
within the study area and 131 people were interviewed. The overall objectives of the study were 
to: (1) inventory and document the most traded/used species of medicinal plants; (2) understand 
socio-economic attributes of stakeholders who were traders, collectors and traditional healers; 
and (3) to capture stakeholders’ perceptions on some alternatives to wild harvesting of medicinal 
plants such as cultivation, domestication and the use of cultivated species of medicinal plants. 
 
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6. 2. Conclusions 
 The following sub-sections summarise the main findings of the investigation under the 
three key objectives of the study outlined in the first chapter of this research report.  
 
6. 2. 1. Socio-economic characteristics of stakeholders 
Contrary to other South African urban areas where women dominate the informal trade of 
medicinal plants, in the Cape Peninsula, the trade of medicinal plants is mainly the domain of 
their male counter-parts. Involvement categories such as collectors, street traders and shop 
traders were in large held by males, while the majority of traditional healers were female. The 
bulk of surveyed respondents could still fit the informal employment sector considering their 
age. Younger respondents tended to be partly involved in the trade of medicinal plants as 
opposed to older people who were fully involved. Moreover, younger participants were 
predominant as collectors, street traders, while older stakeholders were dominant as shop traders 
and traditional healers. Female respondents tended to become involved in the trade at later stages 
and they appear to stay longer than male respondents.  
The findings of this study also show that participation in medicinal plant related-activities 
was not only motivated by cultural considerations, but also by social and economic conditions 
faced by stakeholders. In fact, cultural beliefs and traditions were the main rational for the 
involvement of the majority of the surveyed informants. This is not surprising as it is well 
established that traditional medicine and medicinal plants are important part of traditions and 
cultures of African people (Cunningham, 1993; Wiersum et al., 2006). The majority of the 
surveyed respondents were unemployed (formal sector) and had many dependents to take care 
of. The bulk of them attained secondary education and were in working age category, which 
could qualify them for some job opportunities in the formal sector. Regrettably, a large number 
of them could not find any job in the formal sector. Thus, in the absence of any job opportunities 
in the formal sector, their involvement in the trade of natural resources such as medicinal plants 
for income generation may be justified. Indeed, some informants, especially among the native 
coloured respondents, clearly justified their involvement as purely economically motivated. 
Paradoxically, although the majority of non-native respondents (predominantly traditional 
healers) justified their involvement as culturally motivated, a large number of them 
acknowledged not only making living through the trade of medicinal plants, but also enjoyed 
 110 
high returns from medicinal plants related-activities throughout the year. These latter findings 
tend to support Cunningham’s (1993) view about the increasing migration of traditional health 
practitioners to urban areas to commercialise their services.  
 
6. 2. 2. Overview of medicinal plant species in trade/use in the Cape Peninsula 
Although the trade of medicinal plants in the Cape Peninsula is not intensive in 
comparision to other regions of South Africa such Johannesburg and Durban where it has been 
reported that more than 500 and 400 species are traded, respectively, the use of this important 
natural resource is still well established in the region. About 170 species were actively 
traded/used during the time of this study. This figure only represents those species that the 
respondents have nominated among their top 10 most traded/used species. Therefore, the exact 
number of medicinal plants traded/used in the Cape Peninsula might indeed be higher than the 
reported figure. Helichrysum genus, Agathosma spp., Tulbaghia spp., Hypoxis spp., Alepidea 
spp. are the most traded/used species in the Cape Peninsula.  
A discrepancy in species preferences and ranking was observed between the Rastafarians 
and traditional healers. Equally, there was also a divergence between the top ranked medicinal 
plant species in the Cape Peninsula and those reported in surveys undertaken in Mpumalanga and 
KwaZulu-Natal. This observation stressed the importance of local surveys and justified the 
undertaking of this investigation. 
It is suffices to state that the bulk of species traded/used in the Cape Peninsula is sourced 
from the wild populations. Western Cape and Eastern Cape vegetations act as the main source 
areas. However, few respondents also procure their stocks from KwaZulu-Natal, Lesotho, 
Northern Cape Province and Swaziland. Harvesting activities occur mostly throughout the year 
and stocks are constantly renewed every month, especially among Rastafarians who are mainly 
native to the Cape Peninsula.  
The bulk of the plant parts traded/used consist of roots, bulbs, barks, tubers and in some 
cases the whole plant is uprooted. Species traded for their bark, rhizomes, roots, corms and bulbs 
were the most monetarily valued in the study areas. The Rhizome of Bulbine latifolia, the bulb of 
Haemathus spp., the corm of Hypoxis spp. and the roots of Alepidea spp. were the most valued 
species among Rastafarian communities. Species imported from other provinces or countries 
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were also more costly. It was difficult to assess the value of a single medicinal plant species 
traded by traditional healers, as most of the products consisted of mixtures from several species.  
The question that one may ask is wheter the species of medicinal plants traded or used in 
the Cape Peninsula are sustainably harvested. Indeed, sustainable harvesting, as mentioned by 
Struhsaker (1998), refers to activities involving the extraction of a natural resource in a manner 
that does not deplete the resource, but rather contributes to its regeneration so that similar level 
of material can be used indefinitely. Destructive harvesting, which includes the removal of bark, 
roots, wood and the whole plant, and over-harvesting are among factors contributing to resource 
depletion (Cunningham, 1996; Cunningham, 2001). For example, species such as Warburgia 
salutaris, Ocotea bullata and Curtisia dentate were reported to have become scarce from South 
African forests due to over-exploitation, which was driven by active trade of their barks 
(Geldenhuys, 2004). Similarly, in this study, the majority of the respondents attributed the 
depletion of medicinal plant resources from the wild stocks mainly to over-harvesting. In 
addition, the bulk of inventoried species are traded/used for their vital parts. This investigation 
has also revealed that the majority of informants harvested their stock of medicinal plants on a 
monthly basis. Substituting one species with another is believed to be a warning sign for 
increasing scarcity (Cunningham, 2001). This was true when Waburgia salutaris became scarce. 
Cryptocarya spp. and Cinnamomum camphora were used as substitutes for O. bullata 
(Geldenhuys, 2004). Despite their reluctance to disclose the identity of substitutes, the majority 
of respondents in the present study reported using substitutes for some species that became 
scarce. In addition, some stakeholders were geographically shifting harvesting locations to 
previously unexploited areas to procure species that were becoming scarce. Of more concerns is 
that some Red Data book listed species, which include vulnerable, critically endangered and 
species believed to be declining from the wild and some endemic species such as Agathosma 
crenulata and A. betulina were among the traded/used species within the study area. From the 
above findings, combined with author’s personal observations, one can confidently deduce that 
medicinal plants traded/used in the Cape Peninsula are unsustainably harvested. 
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6. 2. 3. Stakeholders’ awareness and willingness to overturn the ongoing depletion of 
medicinal plants 
Cunningham (2001) mentioned that local communities or resources users, due to their 
familiarity with their close environment, are aware of the state of their natural resources long 
before conservationists. This observation has proven to be true in the current study. Indeed, a 
large number of stakeholders acknowledged the depletion of medicinal plants from the wild. 
Despite the certainty that agriculture, infrastructure building and alien species constitute the main 
threats to biodiversity in the Cape Peninsula, overharvesting and inappropriate harvesting 
techniques have been pointed out as the main causes for the depletion medicinal plants. Of more 
concern is that despite this ongoing diminution of medicinal plant resources, an overwhelming 
number of informants predicted an increase in their medicinal plant demand as it has been the 
trend in recent years. With the lack of unemployment in the formal sector, it is predicted that this 
informal industry would attract more people in the near future. Fortunately, all the stakeholders 
have shown their willingness to use cultivated species and also to undertake cultivation as a 
sustainable way for meeting the increasing demand for medicinal plants. However, willingness to 
cultivate is tied to some needs such as free provision of seedlings, land and training. The 
satisfaction of these needs would not only contribute to the conservation of biodiversity or 
relieving pressure on wild stocks, but would also contribute to poverty alleviation. 
 
6. 2. 4. Key findings of the study for the study 
The first most important finding of this study is that apart from self-usage or domestic 
usage, medicinal plants are being traded in the Cape Peninsula. Documenting the trade of natural 
resources such as medicinal plants, by inventorying species in trade and profiling resource users, 
is believed to provide valuable information necessary for the management of these target species. 
Consistent with the management of biodiversity, this study provides a list of the most 
traded/used species of medicinal plants within the Cape Peninsula and surrounding areas. From 
this inventory, a list of threatened species, which are in urgent need of management, has been 
derived. Altogether, these lists constitute baselines for future studies aimed at sustaining the 
collection of medicinal plants. Secondly, the study reveals the profiles of stakeholders, which 
should be taken into account when elaborating protected area management plans. Thirdly, the 
study provides evidence of resource users’awareness of their natural environment and also their 
 113 
concerns about the dwindling of used species from their natural habitats. Finally, this study 
provides evidence of resource users’ willingness to ambrace some alternatives to overturn the 
ongoing depletion of wild populations of useful resources such as medicinal plants. 
 
6. 3. Recommandations 
The importance of biological diversity, including medicinal plants resources for the 
livelihoods, especially the rural poor, is well recognized. In the past, harvesting of medicinal 
plants was restricted to traditional health practitioners who were well known for their traditional 
conservation practices. However, today, the growing population, urbanisation, unemployment 
and the unrestricted collection of medicinal plants from the wild is leading to the over-harvesting 
of this valuable natural resource. In addition, concerns about the depletion of medicinal plants 
are heightened by the increasing involvement of commercial harvesters, mainly the unemployed 
whose main objective is to make more profit by collecting more resources. This was obvious in 
the current study, where some informants justified their involvement in the trade of medicinal 
plants for economic circumstances.  
Despite the fact that habitat destruction and transformation remains by far the major 
cause of biodiversity loss, over-harvesting due to high demand in urban areas is believed to be 
the main driver of medicinal plant depletion (Williams et al., 2007). Indeed, over-harvesting was 
also mentioned as a rationale for the scarcity of some medicinal plants in the Cape Peninsula. 
However, realising the scarcity of some medicinal plants and weighing the importance of 
medicinal plants for primary healthcare, cultural preservation and income generation, the 
majority of stakeholders responded positively to some alternatives proposed to overturn the 
ongoing dwindling of medicinal plants. 
 
6. 3. 1. In-situ conservation of medicinal plants 
Although both in-situ and ex-situ management of a particular species is important and 
relevant in their respective contexts, these two management types serve different purposes. In-
situ conservation contributes to the long term survival and evolution of a species, while ex-situ 
management such as cultivation, mainly stands to meet the production requirement for 
consumption (Srinivasamurthy and Ghate, 2002). Despite the fact that cultivation may reduce 
pressure on wild populations, cultivated species, due to limited genetic variability, can still go 
 114 
extinct at stochastic events such as pests and diseases. Therefore, the only best way to maintain 
the intra-specific variation within the species is via an in-situ conservation strategy.  
This survey has reported species that are threatened at some point: critically endangered, 
vulnerable, rare and declining. These species are of concern and in need of urgent conservation 
and management attention. Therefore, commercial harvesting of these species from the wild 
populations, either on protected state or privately owned lands should be prohibited. As it may be 
difficult to catch an offender in the act of collecting protected species, possession of these 
species should be prohibited as suggested by the 1993 WHO/IUCN/WWF Guidelines on the 
Conservation of Medicinal Plants and the International Standard for Sustainable Wild Collection 
of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (ISSC-MAP) (Medicinal Plant Specialist Group, 2007). As the 
majority of respondents mentioned the existence of substitutes for most traded/used species, 
including those of concern, the usage of substitutes should be encouraged as an alternative to this 
ban. This is, of course, dependent on the fact that the substitutes are not threatened. For domestic 
usage, in the absence of baseline information on sustainable harvesting levels, rotational 
harvesting as it is practiced now, but under the supervision of conservationists, should continue. 
However, this collection should be carried out in areas clearly defined, with its boundaries 
established and by pre-identified group of harvesters. This is to avoid collection inside core 
zones, where species are protected or undergoing assessment. When baseline information on 
targeted species is available, harvesting should follow the 2007 ISSC-MAP guidelines. For 
example, harvested quantities should be defined on the basis of volume, weight or number of 
plants of targeted species. In addition, protected area managers should determine harvesting 
periods based on seasonality, precipitation cycles and flowering period. 
Like other parts of South Africa, in the Cape Peninsula, many species of medicinal plants 
are traded/used for their vital parts, which include roots, bulbs, rhizomes, corms and bark. 
Environmental organisations in the study area and even in the Eastern Cape, from where most of 
the tree species are harvested, should sensitise resource users to the detrimental impact of 
harvesting these parts. They should encourage them to substitute these vital parts with leaves. In 
fact, active chemical compounds in plants are produced in the leaves and are stores in other plant 
parts, including bark and underground parts. Chemical compounds comparison studies tend to 
support the possible substitution of these destructive parts with leaves (Geldenhuys, 2004; 
Zschocke et al., 2000). The low concentration of active ingredient in leaves, which traditional 
 115 
health practitioners stated “lack healing power”, could be overcome by increasing the quantities 
of used leaf materials. For example, it was found that the leaves of Pelargonium sidoides may 
substitute for its roots in medicinal formulations (Lewu et al., 2006). Similarly, the leaves of 
Octea bullata, which bark are sold/used in the study area, may substitute for its bark 
(Geldenhuys, 2004). Thus, a shift toward the usage of aerial parts, including leaves and twigs, if 
accepted by resource users, especially traditional healers, may result in sustainable harvesting of 
even protected species of medicinal plants. 
 
6. 3. 2. Ex-situ preservation of medicinal plants 
It has been speculated that the best way of supplying the increasing demand for medicinal 
plants is by bringing these resources into cultivation (WHO/IUCN/WWF, 1993). Apart from 
relieving pressure on wild populations, cultivated species often present some pharmacological 
advantages over wild collection. Variations observed in composition and concentration of active 
compounds in wild species, mainly due to environmental and genetic differences, may 
significantly be reduced under cultivation as species are grown in areas of similar climate and 
soil and harvested at the right time. 
As the majority of respondents showed their willingness to cultivation and purchase 
cultivated medicinal plant species, cultivation would be one of the long term responses to wild 
collection of medicinal plants in the Cape Peninsula. With the involvement of resource users, 
small-scale cultivation of species under threat could be prioritised. Municipalities in the Cape 
Peninsula should provide stakeholders with portions of land in areas that are already designated 
or are being used for agriculture as land was the main impediment for undertaking cultivation. 
Seedlings of some native medicinal plant species could be obtained from medicinal plant 
nurseries such as ‘Van Den Berg Garden Village’, and the Kirstenbosch National Botanical 
Garden. For informants currently involved in home gardens such as those in Grabouw, seedlings 
of slow growing species could be freely provided to them. Apart from the propagation of plants 
and education, local municipalities and conservation organizations could also focus on practical 
skills development such as plant propagation and basic gardening techniques. This was 
successfully implemented by SANParks and Rastafarians communities in Knysna for Bulbine 
latifolia (Rooiwortel), which was the most valued species among the Rastafarians in the current 
study (Vermeulen, 2005). 
 116 
In addition, species such as Buchu which is currently under small-scale cultivation should 
not only supply processing international and national industries but also made available to 
informal market in their raw forms to meet the growing demands for medicinal plants.  
On the other hand, as agriculture is pointed out as the main driver of biodiversity loss in 
the Cape Peninsula, farmers should be encouraged to shift from monoculture to intercropping 
systems. This would consist of inter-planting some economically valuable short cycle medicinal 
plants with food crops. This system is successfully being practiced in India (Rao et al., 2004). 
The CapeNature could also persuade private landowners to allow medicinal plant gatherers to 
collect some valuable species from their farmlands before burning their lands as requested by the 
Rastafarian informants.  
Finally, intercultural health knowledge exchanges between traditional health practitioners 
and western health practitioners should be established. This kind of cooperation, which has 
proven to be effective in some parts of the world (Mignone et al., 2007), could result in the wise 
use of medicinal plants by traditional health practitioners. On the whole, despite the cost of some 
recommendations, these measures could contribute to conserve medicinal plants and at the same 
time improve the livelihoods of local people in the Cape Peninsula. 
 
6. 4. Areas for future research 
As the questionnaire was formulated to capture only species of medicinal plants actively 
traded/used, it is obvious that the total number of species in use/trade in the Cape Peninsula other 
than those for medicinal purposes exceeds the current estimate reported in this investigation. 
Indeed, the respondents were asked to mention the 10 most traded/used species. Therefore, future 
surveys should focus on the whole range of species in trade/use. The teams carrying out the 
surveys should preferably be multi-disciplinary. These teams may be comprised of conservation 
campaigners (to persuade the public of the need to conserve medicinal plants), resource 
economists (to evaluate the patterns of use and the economic values of medicinal plants), 
taxonomists (to identify medicinal plants accurately) and resources users (to provide information 
on the uses and availability of medicinal plants). Particular focus should be on species believed 
to have become scare or are dwindling in the wild. 
 117 
Having shown their willingness to use cultivated medicinal plant species, future surveys 
could be on based on determining the number of cultivated species including the 10 most used or 
traded species identified by this study.  
As baseline information on target species is not available for the bulk of species in use in 
the study area, future studies may investigate target species’ population size, distribution, 
structure (age and size class), impact of harvesting (e.g. regeneration after harvest), time and 
frequency of harvesting as well as quantifying collectable yield. This information would 
contribute to the sustainable harvesting of wild population of medicinal plants. Importantly, the 
outcomes from these recommended studies should be explained and disseminated to resource 
users.  
 
6. 5. Limitations of the study 
The main limitation of the study was the initial lack of trust the surveyed communities 
and informants had toward the researcher. This situation was mainly due to the attitude of 
previous researchers. In fact, some researchers who recorded pharmacological usages of 
medicinal plants in the Cape Peninsula did not give any feedback to the informants from whom 
they derived information. More frustrating is the fact that some books were published, but no 
samples of these books were given to them. The other reason justifying this initial reluctance of 
the informants to participate in the study was the relationship between the CapeNature and local 
communities. Some Rastafarian informants do not support the current monthly rotational 
harvesting of natural resources in protected areas as they believe that this management strategy 
does not take into account their socio-economic conditions. This lack of support has resulted in 
illegal activities in protected areas. It might be appropriate to review this management strategy 
with the involvement of all stakeholders. However, this initial lack of trust was overcome by 
involving some members of the concerned communities in the research team. Inclusion of some 
of their problems and challenges in the final questionnaire and continuous supply of relevant 
information to participants created the necessary understanding and environment for effective 
interaction. Apart from the final report that they will be receiving at the completion of the study, 
the outcome of the study will also be explained to them. 
Acquiring vouchers for species sold for their bark and that originate from the Eastern 
Cape Province was the other challenge. This resulted in the lack of identification for some 
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species. Therefore, further studies should not only benefit from consistent findings, but also 
benefit from the collaboration of conservation agencies, harvesters and traditional health 
practitioners from the Eastern Cape Province. 
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 134
  Appendix A: List of species most traded/used in the Cape Peninsula 
 
Scientific name Species common name (s) Family Life form Part used 
Acacia caffra umthole Fabaceae Tree Bark  
Acacia mearnsii Black watlle Fabaceae Tree Bark  
Acacia xanthophloea umkhanya-kude Fabaceae Tree Bark  
Acokanthera oppositifolia Slang blaar Apocynaceae Tree/shrub Leaf  
Agathosma betulina  Buchu; Bergboegoe Rutaceae Shrub Leaf & stem 
Agathosma collina Senuwee tee; berg tee Rutaceae Shrub Leaf & stem 
Agathosma crenulata Buchu; Anysboegoe Rutaceae Shrub Leaf & stem 
Agathosma spp. Coffee buchu  Rutaceae Shrub Leaf & stem 
Albuca setosa inqwebeba; white onion Hyacinthaceae Geophyte Bulb  
Alepidea amatymbica Kalmoes; iqwili Apiaceae Herb Rhizome  
Alepidea delicatula Kalmoes; iqwili Apiaceae Herb Root  
Aloe ferox Intelezi; ikhala; aloe Asphodelaceae Succulent Whole; leaf 
Aloe perfoliata Intelezi; ikhala; aloe Asphodelaceae Succulent Whole; leaf 
Aloe plicatelis Banana aloe Asphodelaceae Shrub or small tree Whole; leaf 
Aloe rupestris Intelezi; ikhala; aloe Asphodelaceae Succulent Whole; leaf 
Amaryllis belladonna Elephant feet Amaryllidaceae Geophyte Bulb  
Anthospermum spp.? Aspalathus spp.? Renosterbos(sie)   Shrub Leaf & stem 
Apodolirion buchananii icukudwana Amaryllidaceae Geophyte Bulb  
Arctopus echinatus Kaapse platdoring Apiaceae Herb Root  
Aristea africana Moerbos Iridaceae Herb Whole  
Artemisia afra Wilde als; uMhlonyana; wormwood Asteraceae Herb  Whole  
Asparagus spp? ingcelwane Asparagaceae   Root  
Behnia reticulata isilawu Behniaceae Climber Root  
Bersama lucens isindiyandiya Melianthaceae Tree Root  
Bowiea volubilis umagaqana Hyacinthaceae Geophyte Bulb  
Brunsvigia marginata Gifbol Amaryllidaceae Geophyte Bulb  
Buddleja salviifolia Bloublomsalie; Salie Scrophulariaceae Tall shrub Leaf & stem 
Bulbine alooides Red storm Asphodelaceae Geophyte Tuber  
Bulbine latifolia Rooiwortel; red carrot Asphodelaceae Geophyte Rhizome  
 135
Cadaba aphylla  Swartstorm; black storm Brassicaceae Tree/shrub Root  
Chironia baccifera Bitterbos Gentianaceae Dwarf shrub/ herb Leaf & stem 
Cinnamomum camphora uroselina Lauraceae Tree Bark; leaf 
Cissampelos capensis David root; Dawidjiewortel; Mayisake Minispermaceae Climber Root  
Cliffortia grandifolia unknown Rosaceae Shrub Leaf & stem 
Cliffortia odorata Wildewingerd Rosaceae Shrub Leaf  
Clivia nobilis uMayime Amaryllidaceae Geophyte Bulb  
Clivia miniata uMayime Amaryllidaceae Geophyte Bulb  
Cnicus benedictus Karmadik Asteraceae Herb Whole  
Cotyledon orbiculata iPewula; iPhewula; Elephant's ear Crassulaceae Succulent Leaf  
Croton gratissimus umahlabekufeni Euphorbiaceae Tree Root; leaf  
Croton sylvaticus (u)Gibeleweni  Euphorbiaceae Tree Root  
Curtisia dentata uMlahleni; mlhaleni Cornaceae Tree Root; bark 
Cussonia spicata (u)Msenge Araliaceae Tree Root; bark 
Cyrtanthus mackenii (u)Velabahleke Amaryllidaceae Geophyte Bulb  
Dicoma capensis Koorsbos(sie); wilde karmadik Asteraceae Herb Leaf & stem 
Dioscorea sylvatica Skilpad; uFudu; isiKolipati  Dioscoreaceae Herb Tuber  
Dodonaea angustifolia Ysterhoutoppe Sapindaceae Tree/shrub Leaf & stem 
Drimia elata umredeni Hyacinthaceae Geophyte Bulb  
Drimia spp. Red onion Hyacinthaceae Geophyte Bulb  
Elaeodendron transvaalensis inGwavuma Celastraceae Tree Bark  
Elytropappus rhinocerotis Renosterbos(sie) Asteraceae Shrub Leaf & stem 
Eriocephalus africanus Koorskuid Asteraceae Shrub Leaf & stem 
Eriospermum lanceolatum Kaneelbol; kaneeltjies Eriospermaceae Geophyte Tuber  
Eucalyptus spp. Bloekom Myrsinaceae Tree  Leaf  
Felicia aethiopica umThiwezulu Asteraceae Shrub Leaf & stem 
Gasteria bicolor Intelezi; iKhala; aloe; iMpundu Asphodelaceae Succulent Whole  
Gasteria croucheri Intelezi; iKhala; aloe; iMpundu Asphodelaceae Succulent Whole  
Gerrardina foliosa Maluleko Flacourtiaceae Tree Root  
Gnidia kraussiana var. kraussiana uMsilawengwe  Thymelaeaceae Shrub Root  
Gunnera perpensa iPhuzi Gunneraceae Herb Root  
Haemanthus albiflos (u)Mathunga Amaryllidaceae Geophyte Bulb  
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Haemanthus sanguineus (u)Mathunga Amaryllidaceae Geophyte Bulb  
Haworthia attenuata Intelezi; iKhala; aloe; iMpundu Asphodelaceae Succulent Whole  
Helichrysum spp. (H. petiolare) Kooigoed; hotnots-kooigoed; impepho Asteraceae Herb Leaf & stem 
Helichrisum spp.  Tiemie Asteraceae Herb Leaf & stem  
Helinus integrifolius (u)Bhubhubhu Rhamnaceae Climber Root  
Heteromorpha arborescens Wildepietersielie; parsley Apiaceae Shrub/small tree Leaf  
Hibiscus pusillus? uvuma     Root  
Polygala galpinii? uvuma     Root  
Hippobromus pauciflorus Perdepis; uLathile Sapindaceae Shrub Leaf & stem  
Hypoxis hemerocallidea African potato; iNongwe; iLabatheka Hypoxidaceae Geophyte Corm  
Ilex mitis isidumo; isidumu Aquifoliaceae Tree Bark  
Kniphofia uvaria ixonya Asphodelaceae Herb Root  
Knowltonia bracteata umvuthuza Rununculaceae Herb  Whole  
Lavandula angustifolia Lavender Lamiaceae Shrub Leaf & stem 
Lederouria spp. isithithibala Hyacinthaceae Geophyte Bulb  
Leonotis leonurus Wilde dagga; klipdagga Lamiaceae Shrub Leaf & stem 
Lobostemon fruticosus Ag-dae-genees-bos Boraginaceae Shrub  Leaf & stem 
Melianthus major Kruidjie-roer-my-nie Melianthaceae Shrub Leaf  
Mentha longifolia Kruisement Lamiaceae Herb Leaf & stem  
Nidorella spp.? umhlabelo     Root  
Selago spp.? umhlabelo     Root  
Ocotea bullata umnukane; uNukani Lauraceae Tree Bark  
Olea europaea. Subsp. africana umquma Oleaceae Tree Leaf  
Osmitopsis asteriscoides Bels Asteraceae Shrub Leaf & stem  
Pachycarpus concolor itshongwe Apocynaceae Geophyte Root  
Parmelia spp. Klipblom Parmeliaceae Lichen  
Pelargonium graveolens Malvablare; rooi malva Geraniaceae Herb Leaf & stem 
Pelargonium triste Kaneelbol; kaneeltjies Geraniaceae Geophyte Tuber  
Pentanisia prunelloides icimamlilo Rubiaceae Herb Root  
Peucedanum galbanum Bergselery; wild selery Apiaceae Shrub Leaf & stem 
Pittorporum viridiflorum umkhwenkwe Pittosporaceae Tree Bark  
Polygala serpentaria inceba Polygalaceae Herb Root  
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Ptaeroxylon obliquum umthathi Rutaceae Tree Bark  
Rafnia amplexicaulis Soethout wortel; sweet root Fabaceae Shrub Root  
Rapanea melanophloes uMaphipha Myricaceae Tree Bark  
Rauvolfia caffra umjelo; ujelo Apocynaceae Tree Bark  
Rhoicissus tridentata (u)Chithibhunga  Vitaceae Climber Tuber  
Rhoicissus tomentosa iMpinda bamshaye Vitaceae Climber Tuber  
Rosmarinus officinalis Roosmary Lamiaceae Shrub Leaf  
Rumex sp idolo lenkonyana Polygonaceae Herb Root  
Ruta graveolens Wynruit; vue Rutaceae Herb/ shrub Leaf & stem 
Salix mucronata Rivierwilger; river willow;wild willow Salicaceae Shrub/ small tree Branch tips 
Salvia africana-caerulea Bloublomsalie; Salie Lamiaceae Shrub Leaf & stem 
Salvia spp.  isicakathi Lamiaceae Herb Root  
Sanseviera aethiopica Bitter patat Dracaenaceae Geophyte Tuber  
Sarcophyte sanguinea subsp. Sanguinea umafumbuka Balanophoraceae herb Bulb  
Schotia spp. umgxam Fabaceae Tree Bark; leaf  
Senna spp. isiNyembane Fabaceae Tree; shrub Leaf  
Siphonochilus aethiopicus Wild ginger; isiphepheto Zingiberaceae Herb Rhizome  
Solanum spp. umthuma Solanaceae Shrub Root; fruit 
Spirostachys africana umthombothi Euphorbiaceae Tree Bark  
Stachys aethiopica Katterkruie Lamiaceae Herb Leaf  
Stangeria eriopus imifingwane Cupressaceae Herb Root  
Stoebe cinerea Slang bos(sie) Asteraceae Shrub Leaf & stem 
Strychnos spp. umnonono; umnono Strychnaceae Tree Bark  
Sutherlandia frutescens Cancer bush; Kanker bossie; keurkie Fabaceae Dwarf shrub  Leaf & stem  
Tabernaemontana ventricosa umkhamamasane Apocynaceae Tree Root  
Tetradenia riparia iboza Lamiaceae Tree Leaf  
Thesium lineatum Witstorm; White storm Santalaceae Shrub/parasite Root  
Trichilia spp.  umkhuhlwa Meliaceae Tree Root; bark 
Tulbaghia alliacea umwelela; Isivimbampunzi Alliaceae Geophyte Bulb  
Tulbaghia violacea Wild garlic Alliaceae Geophyte Bulb  
Vernonia oligacephala Groenamara Apiaceae Herb  Leaf  
Viscum capense Voelent Viscaceae Shrub/parasite Stem  
 138
Warburgia salutaris isibharha; isibhaha Canellaceae Tree Bark  
Xysmalobium spp. itshongwe Apocynaceae Geophyte Root  
Zantedeschia aethiopica Varkblom(blaar) Araceae Geophyte Leaf  
Zanthoxylum capense? umlungumabele     Bark  
Ziziphus mucronata umphafa Rhamnaceae Tree Root  
Zornia capensis umkhondo Fabaceae Herb  Stem  
unidentified Bheka mina ngedwa     Root  
unidentified gobho-uthangazane     Root  
unidentified ikhawu     Leaf  
unidentified imbontjie     Root  
unidentified imitsha     Root  
unidentified impendulo     Fruit  
unidentified indalothi     Root  
unidentified indlebe yebokhwe     Root  
unidentified indonya     Rhizome  
unidentified ingcabuzobobo     Root  
unidentified ingwe     Bark  
unidentified intelezi eluhlaza     Whole  
unidentified intelezi emhlophe     Whole  
unidentified intelezi emhlophe     Whole  
unidentified intelezi ezikhulu     Whole  
unidentified iphakama     Whole  
unidentified ipotoli     Fruit  
unidentified ishwati     Root  
unidentified lyeza lamasi     Root  
unidentified mlomo-mnandi     Root  
unidentified mpila     Root  
unidentified ndlavuza     Bark  
unidentified nkuphulane     Root  
unidentified umnga     Bark  
unidentified umvusanduku     Bark  
unidentified ungcana     Root  
 139
unidentified uvukwabafile     Root; bark 
unidentified zankolana     Bulb  
unidentified Basil mint     Leaf  
unidentified Brandnetel     Leaf & stem 
unidentified Granaatskille     Leaf  
unidentified Kamille     Leaf  
unidentified Kanfer bossie     Leaf  
unidentified Love root   Shrub Root  
unidentified Slanghoutjie/snake root     Root  
unidentified Turksvyblaar     Flower  
unidentified Vark wortel     Tuber  
unidentified ibangalala   Leaf  
unidentified umathithibala      
 
 140 
Appendix B: Market survey questionnaire 
 
1. General information 
Location: ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 
Date: …………………………………………………………………...………………………. 
Interviewee: ……………………………..…………………………………………………….. 
Home Language: ………………………………………………...…………………………….. 
Informant formal occupation: ………………………………………………………………….. 
Gender:      [M]                                                                   [F] 
Race:       [African]                   [White]              [Coloured] 
Age group:                                     [10-20]   [21-30]   [31-40]   [41-50]   [51+] 
Educational level attained:   [No Schooling]     [Primary]     [Secondary]     [Tertiary] 
Province of origin: ……………………………………………………………………………... 
Number of dependent (Person in charge): ……………………………………………………... 
Involvement category:   (1) Trader                        (2) Healer                              (3) Collector  
Why did you involve in medicinal plants? .................................................................................. 
………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 
Is it a full or part-time activity? ………………………………………………………………... 
How long have you been healing people /selling plants……………………………………….. 
 
2. Dynamics in the demand for medicinal plants 
a What season do you have more customers/patients? If any trend, please explain 
why?.......................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................ 
b Have the sales of medicinal plants/number of patients changed compared to the past? 
[Decrease] [Increase] [Stable] [Don’t know] 
c How do you describe the demand for medicinal plants in the future? [Decrease] [Increase] 
[Stable] [Don’t know]. 
Please justify your view: …………………………………………………………………... 
d Where do most of your customers/patients come from ……………………......................... 
 
 
 
 141 
3. Distribution and the availability of the natural plants used for medicinal purpose 
 
a Means of supply:   [grow]   [buy]   [collect from wild]? If you collect from the wild, 
please mention where? .......................................................................................................... 
b Are these plants easy to find?   [Yes]   [No]  
If “No”, explain why? ………………………………………………………………........... 
................................................................................................................................................ 
c Have you noticed a change in terms of the availability of medicinal plants? [Yes]       [No]  
Please justify your answer: …………………………………………………........................ 
d Can any other plant(s) be substituted when the above plants are not available? [Yes]  [No]  
Please mention some of them: ………………………………………………...................... 
e How often do you harvest these plants? ................................................................................ 
f Do non-members from your community people collect medicinal plants where you 
harvest? [Yes]  [No]  
If yes, where might they come from? ……………………………………………………... 
 
4. Conservation status of the used plants and alternatives to alleviate pressure on most 
popular species 
 
a Are you aware of the depletion of some medicinal plant species in the wild? [Yes] [No]  
If “yes”, what do you think are the causes? .......................................................................... 
b What would you do if some medicinal plant species can no longer be found in the wild? 
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................ 
c If medicinal plant can be grown by local farmers, would you buy them? [Yes] [No]  
Could you justify your position: ……………………………………................................... 
d If seeds of mentioned medicinal plant species could be freely supplied, would you grow 
them? [Yes] [No]  
Please justify your answer: ………………………………………………………………... 
e Do you know if the plants you have been using are protected? [Yes] [No]  
If yes, how did you get informed? ………………………………………………………… 
 
f What problems and challenges do you experience in practicing your medicinal plants 
related-activity? ……………………………………………………………………………. 
 142 
g Do you make a living out of the trade of medicinal plants?                            [Yes]      [No]  
If yes, which category would describe your monthly income?  
[<R500] [R501-R1000] [R1001-R1500] [R1501-R2000] [R2001-R2500] [R2501-R3000] 
[>R3001] 
 
5. Stakeholder 10 most traded/used species of medicinal plants 
 
No Plant name (s) Part (s) used Source of supply Price/unit 
1     
2     
3     
4     
5     
6     
7     
8     
9     
10