SELECTED BLACK AFRICAN
DRAMATISTS SOUTH OF THE ZAMBEZI
Celeste Avril Litkie
Dissertation presented for the Degree ofDoctor ofPhilosophy atthe University of
Stellenbosch
Promoter: Prof. Temple Hauptflelsch
Co-Supervisor: Prof. Dennis Schauffer
April 2003
DECLARATION
I,the undersigned, hereby declare that the work contained inthis dissertation ismy own
original work andthat Ihave not previously initsentirety or inpart submitted itat any
university for adegree.
Signature:
IL
Date: .).0 - Of - .;200.3
Abstract
Late twentieth century theatre studies has been characterised by an expansion of the
notion of theatre to encompass an enormous variety of performance-based activities.
Arange of pioneering academics and practitioners have moved beyond the old
European-American paradigm of the literary theatre, to recognize the unique qualities
ofthe performance as atheatrical artefact in its own right. One of the by-products of
this paradigm shift has been what some would term the death - or at least diminution
- ofthe dramatist or playwright.
Another has been the (re-)discovery ofwhat isvaguely referred to as "African
theatre". This study had no intention oftaking up the argument about the precise
forms and processes that belong under that rubric, nor the many problems associated
with such categorizing. It has amuch more mundane aim, namely to look at one form
of play creation - formal playwriting -in a specified region ofthe vast African
continent, south ofthe Zambezi. The focus is very specifically onpublished or
written texts, created and produced in South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe,
Lesotho, Swaziland and Mozambique. For avariety of reasons not allthese countries
could be studied, but enough material was found to arrive at some initial conclusions.
In this respect, this is apioneering study, since no such comparative survey has yet
been done.
Based on aprevious pilot study by Dennis Schauffer atthe University ofDurban-
Westville, the study utilises aprocess model ofthe theatrical system proposed by
Temple Hauptfleisch (1997) as aframe of reference and arange of four basic kinds of
data to answer anumber of questions to study the writers and their works. The
materials utilized are:
1. Play scripts
2. Biographical data, press cuttings, video recordings, articles.
3. Interviews and interviewer's journal entries.
4. Studies ofthe socio-political milieu
Data was gathered on 12writers andtheir works, aswell assome substantial
information on community theatre and related forms inthe region. The primary
authors discussed in some detail are Gibson Kente, Zakes Mda, Gcina Mhlope,
Matsemela Manaka, Fani-Kayode Osazuwa Omoregie, Freddy Philander, Vickson
Tablah Hangula, Tsokolo Muso (Tjotela mor'a Moshpela), Sonny Sampson-akpan,
Andreas Mavuso, and Sipho Mtetwa.
With this data the study seeks to address anumber ofquestions concerning
playwriting inthe sub-continent. These include:
1. acomparison ofexisting performance forms and their relationships to oral
traditions
2. the influence of socio-political contexts onthe works produced
3. the relationship between plays and the other media, such asfilm and
television;
4. aconsideration ofaudiences (ortarget audiences) andtheir impact onthe form
and content ofworks,
5. the impact ofthe nature of, access to and availability ofvenues
6. the role played by funding andrelationships to state institutions;
7. language choices and their impact onthe arts;
8. And finally, the interesting question ofcross-cultural encounters andtheir
influence onthe forms oftheatre inthe region.
This setof questions provide the context for astudy ofthe variety oftheatrical and
performance output generated inAfrica, south oftheZambezi, and to identify some
common and/or divergent cultural influences inthe works ofthe selected black
African dramatists inthe southern sub-continent ofAfrica. As expected, one such
common denominator was the oral tradition, the other was the colonial heritage of
western, Eurocentric theatre and literary practices. The dynamic between these
traditions proved tobe apoint of some interest, but also posed many methodological
problems.
Two other major factors inmany ofthe countries have proven to bethe lack ofa
strong theatrical infrastructure and divergent audience expectations, which have ledto
a proliferation of non-formal and applied theatre processes (e.g. in political theatre,
popular theatre, community theatre, theatre for development, etc), which in their turn
pose their own methodological problems for researchers.
In the final analysis, given the restraints under which the candidate had to work, the
study could only look at some interesting but selected authors, who in their works
seem to illustrate some of the variety and energy of the widely dispersed region.
Hopefully in doing this it provided a few broad indications of important trends. More
importantly perhaps, the study did identify a number of areas for future research. It
would seem that, besides a tremendous need to do considerably more work on the
collection and archiving of data on theatre and performance systems, practitioners and
practice in Southern Africa, there are at least three additional areas of research that
require particular attention:
1. the development of an appropriate theatre research methodology for
application in the region
2. a study of the role played by foreign nationals
3. the setting up of a national and continent-wide database on theatre in Africa.
Opsomming
Teaternavorsing word in die laat twintigste eeu gekenmerk deur 'n uitbreiding van
die konsep teater om 'n enorme spektrum tipes aanbiedings-aktiwiteite ("performance
activities") te behels. Verskeie leidinggewende akademici en praktisyns het verby die
ou Europees-Amerikaanse paradigma van literere teater beweeg om die die unieke
kwaliteite van die aanbieding ("performance") as 'n kreatiewe artefak in eie reg. Een
van die newe-produkte van hierdie verskuiwing in paradigma is die sogenaamde
"dood" - often minste die afskaling van die rol van - dietoneelskrywer of
dramaturg.
'n Ander (her)ontdekking was wat ons breedweg na verwys as Afrikateater. Die
studie beoog rue om al die ou argumente oor die presiese vorms en prosesse wat onder
daardie benaming behoort te behandel nie, of om nogeens te spekuleer oor die menige
probleme wat met sodanige kategorisering gepaard gaan nie. Die doelwit isveel
eenvoudiger: om na een vorm van teksskepping (formele toneelskryf) te kyk in 'n
gespesifiseerde streek van die Afrika-kontinent, suid van dieZambesi. Die fokus is
pertinent op gepubliseerde of geskrewe tekste, geskep en opgevoer in Suid-Afrika,
Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Swaziland en Mozambique. Om verskeie
redes is nie al die lande uiteindelik deurtastend bestudeer nie, maar genoeg materiaal
kon ingewin word om tog by 'n aantal voorlopige gevolgtrekkings uit te kom. In
hierdie opsig is die studie uniek, aangesien nog geen ander vergelykende studie van
teater in hierdie lande onderneem is nie.
Die ondersoek isgebaseer op 'n loodsprojek wat deur Dennis Schauffer by die
Universiteit van Durban-Westville onderneem is, en maak gebruik van 'n proses-
model van die teatersisteem wat deur Temple Hauptfleisch (1997) ontwikkel is om as
'n raamwerk te dien waarbinne vier stelle bronne ontleed en bespreek word. Die
tersake bronne behels:
1. Toneeltekste
2. Biografiese inligting
3. Onderhoude, pers berigte, video-opnames, artikels
4. Studies van die sosio-politieke milieu
Inligting is oor twaalf dramaturge en hulle werk ingewin, saam met substansiele
inligting oor gemeenskapsteater en aanverwante vorme. Die hoof skrywers wat in
besonderhede bespreek word is Gibson Kente, Zakes Mda, Gcina Mhlope,
Matsemela Manaka, Fani-Kayode Osazuwa Omoregie, Freddy Philander, Vickson
Tablah Hangula, Tsokolo Muso (Tjotela mar' a Moshpela), Sonny Sampson-akpan,
Andreas Mavuso, and Sipho Mtetwa.
Met hierdie data het die ondersoeker gepoog om 'n aantal vrae oor toneelskryf op die
sub-kontinent aan te spreek. Die vrae sluit in:
1. 'n vergelyking tussen bestaande aanbiedingsvorms en hulle verwantskap met
orale tradisies
2. die invloed van sosio-politke kontekste op die werke gelwer
3. die verhouding tussen toneelstukke en ander media vorme, soos film en
televisie
4. 'n kyk na gehore (ofteiken gehore) en hulle impak op die vorm en inhoud van
werke
5. die impak, aard en toeganklikheid van speelruimtes
6. die rol gespeel deur befondsing en die verhouding met staats-instellings
7. taalkeuses en hulle impak op die kunste
8. en laastens: die interressante kwessie van kruis-kulurele kontakte en hulle
invloed op die vorme van teater in die streek.
Hierdie stel vrae vorm die konteks vir 'n ondersoek na die verskeidenheid van teater-
en aanbiedingsuitsette wat suid van die Zambesi gegenereer word, en die
identifisering van sommige gemeenskaplike en uiteenlopende kulturele invloede in
die werke van swart Afrika-skrywers in die gebied. Soos verwag, was een van die
gemeenskaplikhede die orale tradisie, 'n ander die koloniale erfenis van Westerse,
Eurosentirese teater en literere gebruike. Die dinamiese interaksie tussen hierdie twee
tradities het van besondere belang geblyk te wees, maar impliseer ook an hele aantal
metodologiese probleme.
Twee ander faktore wat in baie van die bestudeerde lande sleutel rolle speel is die
tekort aan 'n sterk teaterinfrastruktuur en uiteenlopende gehoorverwagtinge. - wat lei
tot 'n proliferasie van nie-formele en toegepaste teaterprosesse (bv. In politieke teater,
popuH:;reteater, gemeenskapsteater, teater vir ontwikkeling, ens.), wat op hulle beurt
ook spesifieke metodologiese uitdagings aan die navorser stel.
Gegee die beperkinge waaronder die kandidaat moes werk, kon die studie dus slegs na
'n aantal interessante maar geselekteerde outeurs kyk, wie se werke die
verskeidenheid en energie van teater in die wydverspreide streek illustreer. Hopelik
het die studie op die wyse 'n aantal bree aanduidings kon gee van belangrike
tendense. Terselfdertyd is 'n aantal belangrike terreine vir toekomstige navorsing
gei'dentifiseer. Dit wil voorkom asof daar, benewens 'n enorme behoefte aan die
byeenbring en argivering van data oor teater sisteme, praktisyns en aanbiedings in die
streek, drie terreine is waarop dringned gewerk moet word:
1. Die ontwikkelling van 'n toepaslike teatemavorsingsmetodologie
2. 'n studie van die rol gespeel deur buitelandse praktisyns in die ontwikkelling
van inheemse vorme
3. die daarstel van 'n omvangryke nasionale en trans-kontinentale databasis oor
teater in Mrika
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Andreas Hadjidimtriades for his enormous support throughout
the research and completion of this project.
To Professor Dennis Schauffer, a special word of thanks for his original inspiration,
ongoing guidance and continued support, and for letting me have access to his
valuable resources in undertaking this study.
To the Drama Department at the University of Stellenbosch for the technical and
logistical support.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter One: Introduction.
Chapter Two: South Africa.
Chapter Three: Botswana.
Chapter Four: Namibia
Chapter Five: Lesotho.
Chapter Six: Swaziland, Zimbabwe and Mozambique.
Chapter Seven: Conclusion
Bibliography
Page 1-50
Page 51-99
Page 100-117
Page 118-140
Page141-154
Page 155-170
Page. 171-183
Page 184-188.
Appendices. Page 189-234
Appendix 1 Black African Dramatists: An Interim Report Page 190-193
Appendix 2. Diagram of Theatre as a System of Processes. Page 194-195
Appendix 3. Interview Gina Mhlope. Page 196-205
Appendix 4. Interview with Gibson Kente. Page 206-218
Appendix 5. Interview with Matsemela Manaka. Page 219-234
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
One ofthe marvels of late twentieth century theatre studies has been the expansion of
the notion oftheatre to encompass an enormous variety of performance-based
activities. This has occurred through the pioneering work of arange of academics and
practitioners who have moved beyond the old European-American paradigm ofthe
literary theatre, to recognize the unique qualities ofthe performance as atheatrical
artefact in its own right. Among the by-products ofthis paradigm shift have been
what some would term the death -or atleast dimunition ofthe playwright -and the
rediscovery of numerous "alternative" performance forms, orforms of "theatre".
One ofthese newly re-discovered traditions has been the so-called" Mrican theatre".
What that means, what forms and processes allbelong under that rubric, what
problems are associated with such categorizing, and soon has been much debated
over the years, by most ofthe luminaries ofthe academic and artistic world. Sothis
study has no intention oftaking up that argument again, but has amuch more
mundane aim, namely to look at one form ofplay creation in a specified region ofthe
vast Mrican continent.
In our own cultural endeavours as South Africans, we are becoming more and more
aware of aneed to recognize and to root ourselves somehow in awider, yet
1
inescapable African context. Yet for so many years we have had no access to it, even
within our own country. It has only been in the past two decades that authors and
academics have begun to study the work of local, non-Western forms in seriousness.
1.1 Aims of the study
Given the situation outlined above this study intends to begin an exploration of theatre
practice, and in particular the playwriting activities in a number of countries south of
the Zambezi. The focus will be on published or written texts, and the countries
originally targeted were South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Lesotho,
Swaziland and Mozambique. For reasons to be explained further on, not all these
countries could be studied, but enough were done to arrive at enough data to come to
some initial conclusions.
The study is based on a former study by Dennis Schauffer (see Appendix 1) and,
utilizing a process model of the theatrical system proposed by Temple Hauptfleisch
(see Appendix 2) as a frame for the study. The candidate then uses a comparative
technique - which she has termed "quadulation" (see 1.4 below) - to address a
number of issues of some importance in the developing inter-regional exxchange of
artistic output. These include:
(a) a comparison of existing performance forms and their relationships to oral
traditions
(b) the influence of socio-political contexts on the works produced
2
(c) the relationship between plays and the other media, such as film and
television;
(d) a consideration of audiences (or target audiences) and their impact on the form
and content of works,
(e) the impact of the nature of, access to and availability of venues
(f) the role played by funding and relationships to state institutions;
(g) language choices and their impact on the arts;
(h) And finally, the interesting question of cross-cultural encounters and their
influence on the forms of theatre in the region.
This set of questions provide a context for some tentative speculation about the
extent of a shift to an Mrocentric paradigm. In addition, the study seeks to outline
some of the limitations encountered by researchers, and questions of appropriate
methodology and assessment criteria.
1.2 Community theatre, popular theatre and theatre for development
Perhaps one of the most prominent buzzwords today is that of community theatre (and
the reader will find references to it throughout this study). Certainly the concept is
widely used in the region we are studying, and in some areas we have been studying
the practice of "community theatre" it has proved to form the core of theatre activity.
While it has not been the intention of this study to focus on anything except the
performance of written scripts (i.e. formal plays), one cannot ignore the impact of
what has variously been named community theatre, theatre for development and
3
popular theatre (see Steadman, Kerr, Kruger, et al.) So perhaps a few notes on
community theatre may be of use in planning any further research.
In this regard an important conference took place at the Victoria Hotel in Maseru,
Lesotho, from 19th to the 24th June 2000. This was an event coordinated by the
Market Theatre Laboratory and it brought together representatives of community
theatre organisations from most of the SADEC countries for the purposes of
formalising the loose association of such groups that had been set up in Swaziland the
year before. Dennis Schauffer attended this event, having been granted observer
status in what effectively was an all Black Mrican group of representatives. He also
made full use of the opportunity to record interviews with many of the delegates.
In reading his reports on the formation ofSATI (SouthernAfrican Theatre
Initiative), it seemed to me that here was an example of a kind of theatre unique to
Southern Mrica. The focus upon communal creation of performance using the local
languages of the community and drawing upon the traditions, customs, legends,
dances, and rituals of the particular society all seemed to accord well with an
Mrocentric approach to the creation of theatre. The debate on directly relevant issues
raised by the presentations made this form of theatre peculiarly relevant to the target
audience, and the fact that the entire exercise is, in financial terms, donor-driven
makes the work accessible in a way that no commercially presented piece could ever
be. Community theatre is, of course, a term used all over the world but it seemed to
me that in the southern sub-continent of Africa it had developed into a unique hybrid
form of undeniable importance. Schauffer reports that a website is to be set up by the
Market Theatre Laboratory listing over 3000 independent community theatre groups
4
known to exist in the sub-continent. Mpo Molepho who is in charge of this valuable
record, and who chaired the meetings in Maseru, estimates that the total number of
individuals involved in Community theatre and working under the umbrella of one or
more of these groups is of the order of 45 000 with the majority being in their late
teens. (Schauffer, Log.)
In America the term Community theatre refers to something completely different
from the kind of theatre SATI is seeking to coordinate and promote. From the
website ofthe American Association of Community Theatre representing the interests
of over 1000 Community theatre groups (webmaster@oact.org) comes the
information that amateur acting companies existed in America from as early as 1788
(the Thalian Association of Wilmington, North Carolina) which still exists today
along with other very long-standing groups such as the Community Theatre (in Salt
Lake City (founded in 1853) and The Footlight Club in Boston (founded in 1877).
But 'Community Theatre' as a term only came into general use in America at the turn
of the last century when with the advent of movies, the small-town professional
playhouses closed or were converted into movie-houses - much in the same way as
many theatres in South Mrica were converted.
Essentially the American Community theatre practitioners do not aspire to
professional status, although they may well aspire to professional standards. In South
Africa they would simply be "amateurs". By comparison practitioners in Community
theatre groups in the African sub-continent do receive money for their participation -
which makes them professional in the strictly legal definition of the term. The levels
of remuneration are of course pathetically low by comparison with some earnings
5
abroad but in an economically depressed region of the world low earnings are better
than no earnings at all. Most participants seem to join community theatre groups after
their matric or senior certificate at the end of High School education and one suspects
that unlike participants in Community theatre in America or in Amateur Dramatic
Associations in England or on the Continent, the Southern Mrican Community theatre
participants are driven as much by the desire to earn a meagre living as by the desire
to celebrate their creative potential within the art.
Schauffer's log makes interesting reading in this regard. In the log entry dated
27/05/2000 he notes:
Tebogo quietly asked Nivashni on the way out of Ghetto
Artists headquarters in Mabutho Street in the
suburb of Dong a in Francistown, for her contact
address in South Mrica. The same thing
happened at Bricks in Katatura with Christie
Warner. In the official recorded interviews all
the community theatre workers spoke of their
absolute commitment to community
development through theatre, despite the lowest
subsistence levels of funding for their
involvement. Meanwhile I got the clear
impression that if we were auditioning any of
these young people for the opportunity to act in a
well-paid movie, TV series, or commercial
6
theatre piece which was pure entertainment
without a hint of "community development" we
would have been killed in the rush.
(Schauffer - Log.)
All of the above notwithstanding, 45 000 underpaid professionals still make
community theatre the largest professional grouping in the region, outnumbering
mainstream professional practitioners by a handsome margin.
In terms of this study however, they are of no direct interest, for such groups normally
only create scripts of communal authorship - that is if they are recorded at all. The
motive for creating scripts appears not to be for publication nor, in practise, for
regular re-use in subsequent productions of the same work, but for inclusion in reports
to donors and to donor agencies as part of being accountable for donations received,
and as indication to future donors of the nature and quality of the work capable of
being generated by the group should they be so fortunate to receive funding in the
future.
Long influenced by Augusto Boal' s work, this notion of community theatre has
obvious relevance here in the sub-continent of Africa and elsewhere in Mrica where a
hybrid version of community theatre is practiced, and comes close to the form created
by the Colway Theatre Trust (C.T.T.) founded in 1979 by the playwright Ann
Jellicoe. It seemed incredible that in Lyme Regis in Colway, in Southern England, an
experiment in theatre twenty-two years ago should play itself out so effectively here
7
in Africa today, in a cultural milieu quite divorced from the influence of mainstream
Eurocentric culturel.
But there are also differences between the British and Southern African practice. The
single most important difference is that the British model uses local issues, local
talent, and local human resources not only to create theatrical presentations of social
relevance, but also to draw this material together in order to create a publishable
script. The Southern African approach (very understandably - for the reasons
discussed in this thesis) is to de-emphasize the word. Another point of major
significance is that many Black African dramatists who have published play scripts
also work in community theatre. Zakes Mda for example donates his time to
community groups in Dobsonville (Asoka Theatre Profile Series, Zakes Mda, p.8) and
he does not produce his own work 'except when we talk about theatre for
development where I have produced and directed' (Asoka Theatre Profile Series,
Zakes Mda, p.9). Similarly, Matsemela Manaka did community theatre work through
Soyikwa (See appendix 4), John Kani has undertaken similar sort of work not only in
South Africa but also abroad, and the Market Theatre Laboratory offers outstanding
support and encouragement to community theatre groups not only in South Africa but
throughout the sub-continent. John Ledwaba may start with a script but even this is a
product of workshopping with others .
... I write a lot of stutT, but I leave the group to workshop the situations.
(S.A./lL.)
This approach evolved out ofLedwaba's association with Sam Mangwane and
Maishe Maponya's work with the People's Theatre Association.
8
Thus, whilst there are variations in approach, the Black African dramatists in South
Africa seem to contribute to the theatre on three levels. (1) Through publication of
their scripts they are contributing to agrowing canon of South African dramatic
literature. (2) Through their work in mainstream theatre both within South Africa and
abroad they have brought avibrancy to the theatre that owes much to the tradition of
using theatre to tell a story in a simple and effective way. Uncluttered by the
necessity to present the work within the Western presentational style of Realism, the
works can move with ease from scene to scene in a swift panorama of sequential
scenes, flashbacks, presentations that collapse the distinction between past and
present, natural and super-natural (as inMda's version ofMagic Realism), audience
space and performance space (as inMatsemela Manaka's late works), ritual and
performance (as in The Asabo Tail by Sonny Samson-akpan).
(3) Finally most Black African dramatists seem to maintain strong links with
community theatre groups and many involve themselves directly in 'theatre for
development' as some would call ie.
It could be argued that involvement of dramatists inboth workshopping and
scriptwriting - in communal authorship has been the to benefit of both, with the
community providing arich range of material for facilitators, directors, or playwrights
to use their skills to order and shape into aproduction that isthen scripted or not as
the case may be. The full extent ofthe impact of community theatre inthe sub-
continent istoo early to assess and as aform oftheatre itwill always be at risk
because of its funding base. Shifts inworld economy impact upon the willingness of
!.I s....?
donor countries to contribute to such initiatives, worthy though they may perceive
them to be. Political unrest in the region may also negatively affect sponsorship from
abroad. Only time will tell for instance, what the effect of the present Zimbabwean
situation or the attack on the World Trade Centre in New York will be on donor aid to
the region. Sustainability is thus a matter of major concern.
A possible solution for sustaining some groups seems to lie in attaching them to or at
least associating them with parastatal institutions in the various countries. In Namibia
for example, Bricks Community Theatre receives assistance from NAC (Namibian
Arts Council) and NAC also runs its own programme of theatre for development by
sending out what amounts to ad hoc community theatre companies, to facilitate social
awareness, health awareness and to provide through theatre a problem-solving
mechanism through which to address social problems in rural communities. In
Botswana community theatre is also supported by the central government, and
independent organisations such asReetsanang in Gabarone have built up reserves
over the years to be able to sustain some financial cutbacks, at least in the short term,
in addition the University ofBotswana has established a unit which uses students in a
Community outreach programme. Indirect University funding through the provision
of space, transport and subsistence then absorbs the cost of sustaining this small
company in large measure. Lecturers who act as facilitators can do so without
additional remuneration as this has been incorporated into their academic workload.
The advantage of working through a University Department includes the fact that in a
academic setting there is a greater likelihood of scripts being developed by these
student groups under the guidance of lecturers whose mindset is perhaps closer to the
printed page than the mindset of most Community Theatre practitioners. Dr.
10
Omoregie atthe University ofBotswana looks forward to developing such scripts, as
does hiscounterpart atthe University ofRomainLesotho, Sonny Sampson-akpan
who has already collected together what heregards asexciting student writing which
has emerged from the Community Theatre approach.
In South Mrica Theatre-in-education groups have existed for many years at
Universities, and attraining colleges and Technikons. Whilst this isnot community
theatre according to SAT!thinking, one could envisage the possibility ofthese
parastatal bodies one day embracing the community theatre methodology intheir
training of drama students. Some Universities already have established theatre for
development or community theatre exercises aspart ofthe training. Sothe possibility
exists that community theatre could survive in some measure bybeing associated
with, attached to, or even generated byparastatal bodies. There are no certain
solutions however, asisillustrated bythe fact that aprogramme ofcommunity
development inthe Umgeni Valley and an outreach programme tothe Westville
prison came to anuntimely end with the demise ofthe Drama Department onthe
campus ofthe University ofDurban-Westville.
We are still far too close tothe situation to assess the impact ofdemocratic rule in
South Mrica orto predict with any certainty trends inthe development oftheatre in
the region but one thing isfor certain andthat isthat the only constant factor is
change. The development ofthe National television services incountries like
Namibia, Botswana and Lesotho has come hand inhand with the movements towards
the establishment oftheatre unions andthere istalk ofa National Theatre being built
inGabarone. Allthis tends to shiftthe emphasis slightly from the ethos of
11
Community Theatre to that of 'professional' theatre inthe western sense ofthe term.
In an interview with James Chitakuta, the former National coordinator for Reetsanang
Association of Community Drama Groups in Gabarone, Botswana, Schauffer asks:
How isprofessional theatre to develop when allthe
community theatre work that you do ispresented
free of charge to the community? This means
that inthe minds ofthe audience, this thing
called "theatre" isafree service to the
community? How then are professional actors to
be paid?
(B/JC)
Whilst community theatre practitioners are 'professional' inthe strictly legal sense
(they get paid something for the practice oftheir art) the methodology of community
theatre practice does not put the focus upon individuals asplaywrights, directors,
critics, designers, or actors. The emphasis lies on matters such asgroup authorship,
workshopping as adevelopmental method and upon collaborative consensus in
creation. In this way community theatre stands in some measure in opposition to
what isregarded as 'establishment theatre' inthe west. For example, Chitakuta, in
reply to Schauffer's question calls for abalance between professional theatre and so-
called theatre for development and empowerment, making the point that the practice
of 'theatre' isnot foreign to the people of Africa, who have sung songs, danced,
recited poetry and preserved an oral tradition for centuries. All ofthis was done to
preserve the oral history ofthe tribes, and to teach, mobilise, and to organise society.
12
Withcolonialism came 'thenewtheatre ... whichmarginalized thetheatre, which was
already there ... when intellectuals cameintheytried ...toowntheatre andinother
words theytriedtoownculture andthat'swhere theproblems began ... Theatre is
created bythepeople andwhat weneedtodoistopromote thatnotion. Topromote
something that draws energy fromthepeople, something that people canidentify
with, something thatpeople cancall"ours"not"mine". "Ours"because theatre is
collective.' (B/JC)
SoforChitakuta involvement incommunity theatre isnotdrivenbythemotive to
earnaliving from itbutisdriven bythedesireto'inform, educate, conscientise,
socialise andorganise communities andtopromote development communication.'
(B/JC) Hearguesthatwhentheshiftisfromcommunity service toemployment then
thereisalsoaneedtoinstitutionalise training inprofessional theatre, toestablish
sometraining institutions forthispurpose. Butheisconcerned thatthis should notbe
'attheexpense oftheatre, which ismeanttoempower communities.' (B/JC)
Tomakeanysense ofthepresent situation suggested bythisbriefoutline, onewill
needtorelyupon follow-up studies andstudies thatwilladdress neglected fields. An
urgent needisforastudytobemounted, whichwould enquire intothesituation that
exists inthePortuguese speaking countries oftheregion -something thatwas
precluded fromconsideration here. Thedeveloping history ofSA TI asamovement
needs tobetracked andnewfacesandnewnames inBlack African dramaturgy need
tobefound, consulted, andwritten up,whilstthenewdirections inwhich those whose
work hasbeen noted aretravelling needtobemonitored andrecorded. Itisamajor
taskrequiring thefull-time involvement ofaspecially funded research unit. Itistobe
13
hoped that this can be established before the material that is being developed at this
exciting juncture disappears forever. Such is the nature of our art, which is both its
glory and its bane.
When first proposed this thesis set out to investigate common and divergent cultural
influences in the works of selected black Mrican dramatists in the southern sub-
continent of Africa. One of the possibilities for a common denominator between
dramatists from this vast geographic area and from an equally vast divergence of
cultures was the oral tradition, so strong in all Mrican cultures. The writer was not
aware of any study that had thus far been mounted to test this or other relevant
assumptions within the scope of a sub-continental study. The possible problems
raised by the subjective involvement of the researcher were to be confronted and
resolved by the adoption of a non-dual approach to the analysis of material. When it
came to putting the above proposals into practice however, several revisions had to be
made, definitions of terms sought, delimitation's declared, sections expanded, and a
more thorough cross-referencing of the content of the play scripts with the interviews
was undertaken. A major revision of the methodological approach also became
imperative for reasons that shall be outlined below.
As to the scope and need for this study, the sub-continental focus renders this work
distinct from other studies in the field that have confined themselves to South Mrica
alone. See Coplan (1985), Couzens (1985), Hauptfleisch (1997), Steadman's various
articles (1980-1990), Kruger (1999), Larlham (1985), Kavanagh (1985) etc. Another
distinguishing feature may well prove to be the methodology that has emerged
organically from the nature of the material and the needs of the study. The sub-
14
continental scope of the study also involves issues, such as the various forms of
colonialism, cultural hegemony, the existing challenges to the integration, and
possible resurgence of the Afrocentric paradigm in the performing arts. This being
the case the research could contribute substantially to the current debates raised by the
so-called 'African Renaissance' movement (President Thabo Mbeki; Njabulo Ndebele;
Prof. Pitika Ntuli etc.) In this way, the study could claim relevance beyond pure
theatre studies, while the archival records might also be of value to future researchers
in this field.
In An Introduction to post-colonial theatre, Brian Crow comments:
It is easy to see the absurdity of an audience sweating its way
through a stilted performance of A Midsummer Night's Dream or
An Inspector Calls in an ill equipped colonial hall on a hot
tropical night in Africa or India, especially when all around,
unknown or unacknowledged, were indigenous theatrical riches
the western avant-garde would one day set out on cultural safaris
to discover.
(Crow, B.: 1996.p.13)
Whilst Peter Brooke drew inspiration from encounters with a variety of Northern
African sources, the same has been happening in the southern sub-continent. Indeed
there are reports from Windhoek, Gabarone, Maseru etc. that scholars from
continental and American Universities are already spending their sabbatical leaves,
summer vacations, and mid-term breaks on visits to this region conducting interviews,
gathering hardcopy material, and filming theatrical activity - as indeed they are in
Durban, Cape Town and Johannesburg. This has created its own problems and
15
Botswana has recently introduced apermit requirement for non-Botswanian
researchers in order to protect the cultural and intellectual rights ofthe region from
perceived exploitation. But resistance to particularly White researchers investigating
Black theatre has along history. During the 1970's and early 1980's Peter Larlham
undertook the fieldwork, which led to the publication in 1985 ofhis highly
informative book Black Theatre, Dance and Ritual in South Mrica. Inthe preface he
comments 'As aWhite researching Black performance in South Africa, I found initial
contact with organisations and participants was difficult to establish.' (Larlham, P:
1985 p. i) This ishardly surprising when one considers that this period was witness to
the rising influence ofthe Black Consciousness (BC) movement. Larlham was not
alone in encountering such difficulties. In his inaugural lecture asProfessor ofDrama
atthe University ofDurban-Westville, Dennis Schauffer recalls that when he sought
an interview with Benji Francis and Saths Cooper.
...in order to gain insight into the development of TECON beyond the
movement that Iconsidered myself to have been an early witness to, my request
was refused". The reason given was that intheir view" one ofthem" should
research this.
(Schauffer D.: 1990, p.6)
I, myself, received an equally cold welcome from many ofthe members ofthe Indian
community when Iresearched and wrote my thesis for my Master's degree.
Schauffer's membership ofTECON (Theatre Council ofNatal)l had not been renewed
after the first year, asthe organisation had resolved to adopt aB.C. stance. Now this
raises anumber of interesting questions; the membership ofTECON, apart from
16
Schauffer's of course, was drawn from the Durban Indian Community. The question
then arises: 'Is "Indian" Black?'
Schauffer recalls that in 1992 he was approached by avery confused Black African
drama student who was finding great difficulty in coming to terms with the concept of
'blackness' as encountered in his movement classes. Suria Govender, a movement
lecturer in the Department of Drama at the University of Durban-Westville had
claimed that she was an African first and an Indian second. 'That's all very well' said
the student, 'but she doesn't look very African to me!' 2 Clearly in the mind of the
student the term 'Black person' and 'African person' were synonymous with 'Black
African person'. What appears on the surface to be a self-evident term becomes a site
for contestation.
Loren Kruger reminds us that in interpreting the term Black, 'the PAC had stressed the
priority of indigenous Africans, whilst S.A.S.O.'s leaders included South Africans of
Indian descent and its founding president, Stephen Biko, had argued for an inclusive
interpretation of black consciousness "not as a matter of pigmentation" but rather as a
"reflection ofa mental attitude".' (Kruger, L.: 1999. p.129) 3
This mental attitude must be read however as that which is characterised by the
defiance of white supremacism. It was therefore in vain that Schauffer appealed to
TECON for reinstatement.
I wrote what I considered at the time to be reasoned appeal to the organisation
to judge membership eligibility on the basis of the member's declared political
stance rather than upon the colour of the members skin, a determination which I
17
regarded as inverted racism ... I did not receive a reply but this in itself was a
clear message to me:" You're white, so you're out."
(Schauffer, D.: 1990, p.6.)
Between Larlham's fieldwork in the 1970's and today, many major changes have
occurred in the socio-political landscape of the sub-continent. This study delimits
itself to a consideration of black African dramatists south of the Zambezi. Prior to
1970 three states in this region had achieved independence:
.:. Botswana _30th September 1966
.:. Lesotho - 4th October, 1966
.:. Swaziland - 6th September, 1968.
Thereafter the record reads:
.:. Mozambique - 25th June 1975
.:. Zimbabwe - 18th April 1980
.:. South Africa - 27 April 1994.
Whilst Larlham has emigrated to the United States, Schauffer is still active in local
theatre research and has turned his attention more recently to a consideration of black
African dramatists south ofthe Zambezi, which is very fortunate for this researcher.
The fact of the matter is that neither my health, my job, nor my family commitments,
could ever see me travelling the length and breadth of the sub-continent, undertaking
fieldwork for this thesis. Schauffer has on the other hand already covered much of the
territory in search of material for his Theatre Profile Series 4. Having spent three years
of part-time involvement on this research project, he had covered most of the field in
South Africa and was about to extend the study to include neighbouring territories,
18
when the University ofDurban-Westville decided, inits wisdom, to shut the
departments ofFine Art, Music and Drama together with the departments ofIndian
Languages, andEuropean Languages. This cut Schauffer off from his funding base
for the research exercise.
Having secured private funding through me,together we created asetofquestions we
felt would be pertinent to thetopic being covered. We had abasic setofquestions as
well as asetof additional questions that could be used ifthe interviewee went off on a
tangent. He and his research assistant then completed atour ofthe sub-continent
which garnered video and audio interview material, curricula vitae and co-lateral
material, together with some valuable unpublished play scripts, covering Namibia,
Botswana, Lesotho, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Swaziland, and Tanzania.
Although Zambia and Tanzania fall outside the geographic delimitation ofthis study,
this record provides some interesting comparative insights. Schauffer did intend
ultimately to draw this material together inthe form of apublication but, given the
closure ofthe Department ofDrama, his enforced early retirement andthe lack of
capacity inconsequence to source research funding, hehas agreed to give me access
to copies of allhis video and audio material, co-lateral material, scripts andto his
researcher's journal. This alone however will not suffice to answer the key questions
that this thesis sets outto investigate. Reference to abroad range ofother source
material will be required. The thorny matter ofthe methodology with which to
interrogate this material also needs attention and this will be dealt with below.
1.3 Definition of Terms
19
Turning to the title of this thesis, it is obvious that there is hardly aword inthis title
that may not be contested. So let us briefly consider afew working definitions for the
discussion to follow.
Black, White, Coloured and Indian.
The terms Black, White, Coloured andIndian resonate with meanings that derive from
the use of such terms by the previous apartheid regime and its British and Dutch
colonial predecessors in their differentiation of racial groupings in Southern Mrican
society. (Other such categorising terms over the course ofthe past century were
Native, Bantu, Asian, European, Non-European, 'Brown people', etc., but they are not
germane here.) Contrary to our fondest expectations, these terms have unfortunately
not disappeared under the new democratic dispensation since 1996, since they now
form the basis for restitution and equity moves by the government and civil society. In
the discussion to follow we shall thus use them to differentiate between racial
divisions which existed atthe time the plays were written and will employ Ian
Steadman's simplified definitions, as provided in his unpublished doctoral thesis
(Drama and Social Consciousness: Themes inBlack Theatre on the Witwatersrand
until 1984):
... 'White' refers to European settlers and their descendants ofthe
Caucasian group, and 'European', often used incorrectly as a
synonym for white, isused here to differentiate between South
Mrican whites and native inhabitants ofEurope. 'Coloured' refers
to people legally categorised in South Mrica as being of mixed
descent, whereas 'Mrican' refers to peoples ofthe Bantu group
who are ofNegro-Mrican descent, and 'Indian' refers to
20
descendants of the Asian people, who settled in South Africa
since the nineteenth century.
(Steadman, I. P.: 1985, p.51)
An important rider to this however, is the Black Consciousness Movement's
politicisation and extension of the notion of 'blackness' to include all so-called
'coloureds' and 'Asians' during the struggle period (1970-1990). In Black South
African Women Kathy Perkins (1998) quotes Loueen Conning as saying:
I consider myself African. But this is not a general Coloured
perception. In fact a lot of Coloured people deny their African
heritage. There is an aspiration towards white beauty although it
is not overtly stated, but they furiously straighten their hair so
that you can't see the African kink, they still consider a straighter
nose, thinner lips, and lighter skin as beauty.
(Perkins, A.: 1998, p.6.)
This is a clear expression of the Black Consciousness stance, which is also revealed in
the People's Educational Theatre publication the PET Newsletter no 2 (as quoted by
Kruger, 1999), where it is stated that SABTU (the South African Black Theatre
Union) regarded theatre as a 'means to assist Blacks to reassert their pride, dignity,
group identity and solidarity' ... in part by recovering a history of 'black civilisations'
... and in part by offering 'positive representations of the needs, aspirations, and goals
of Black people as seen by Blacks now' (quoted in Kruger L.: 1999, p.130).
Much of the South African writing to be discussed is a product of this period of
political radicalisation and thus informed by these ideas.
21
Black Theatre/White Theatre
From the foregoing perspective Peter Larlham (1985) viewed Black theatre and White
theatre as a separate genres of theatre in his discussion of South African theatre and
performance:
In South Africa there is a clear-cut distinction between White
theatre and Black theatre. The division is not supported by
language differences, or by the mutual agreement of all Black
and White South Africans, but is maintained through the policy
of apartheid and its supporting legalisation. ... It is for this
reason that Black theatre, distinct and separate, can be dealt with
as a genre on its own.
(Larlham. P; 1985. pp. 61-61)
Whilst the political climate has changed, the plays discussed in this study were mostly
conceived and produced in the divisive and distinctive context of the late 20th century.
In this context 'black theatre' was largely defined politically (see Steadman, 1985 for
example), but for our purposes it simply refers to plays written by authors outside the
'white' or 'Indian' communities and theatre practitioners working outside the formal
'white' structures in the period. The fact isthe varied mindsets of the past will remain
for some considerable time and the plays reflect this - despite the immense range of
form and content in the work. Furthermore, if it can be accepted then that Black
theatre could be considered as a distinct genre in South Africa, it still remains to be
justified as a term in respect of the neighbouring states south of the Zambezi, Zambia,
etc. Schauffer's interviews with non-South African dramatists in the sub-continent
22
however have tended to support the notion that the division into Whitetheatre and
Black theatre may be equally tenable throughout the region. The only difference
being that White theatre in neighbouring territories seems often to be referred to as
expatriate theatre instead.
African
In view of the preceding thought, it became necessary to add a further delimitation to
the title of this study, by adding the term African in order to specify the focus of the
study on a category of dramatists who are specifically of the Bantu group (i.e. of
Negro-African descent), in contrast to other groupings that could fall under the term
black (as outlined above). Indeed throughout this study liberal use will be made ofthe
term African in expressions such as South African, Southern African, African
mindset, traditional African ritual, African renaissance, African drama, African
theatre, African art, African literature, etc. However, in our post-apartheid, post-
colonial present it would be naive to ignore layers of meaning that history has heaped
upon this term by simply accepting a dictionary meaning' of or pertaining to the
African continent.'
Yvette Hutchison in her unpublished D.Phil. thesis (Memory is a Weapon: The uses
of History and Myth in selected Post-1960 Kenyan, Nigerian and South African
Plays) gives an extensive account of the shift in meaning of the term' African' from
pre-colonial to post-colonial use. Hutchison quotes RolfItaliaander (who in turn
quotes from Das sterbende Afrika by Leo Frobenius, published in 1923) who says
'Here one sees the representation of Africa as passive, a homogeneous continent of
23
one "race", that had slept until it had been awoken by colonial impact.' (Hutchison,
Y: 1999. P.30).
The term African would then have taken on resonances of this passivity and of the
implicit meaning determined by the Eurocentric, colonialist mindset. Set against this
is the dedication in black post-colonialist discourse to rediscover what remains of a
neglected, and in the main unrecorded, past through the oral history, rites, myths, and
legends that were marginalized at best, or totally ignored by historians in colonial
times. According to Hutchison the shift in meaning was:
...partly a response to the world, with the Italian occupation of Ethiopia, the
way Jews were treated in Germany, Ghandi's nationalism, and the
developments in North Mrica. The events shocked many of the Black
intellectuals into changing their view of the West and rejecting European
models, shifting towards a more aggressive assertion of the "African
Personality"
(Hutchison, Y 1999, pp. 28- 29.)
She goes on to point out that this shift coincided with the Negritude movement in
black Francophone intellectuals and the impact of Marxism, the American Negro
Renaissance. and Black Consciousness. Later the move was towards Pan-Mricanism.
The new meanings or implications inherent in the post-colonial use of' Mrican' arose
from the desire to rehabilitate a lost pride in being Mrican, the desire to vindicate
Africa's rich but neglected past, and from the desire to offer' an ideological rejoinder
to colonial historiography' (Hutchison, Y: 1999, p.29 - Quoting Temu and Swai).
Similarly, in an attempt to describe the essence of Mrican thought in her monumental
work Yurugu, Marimba Ani says:
24
The African universe is personalised not objectified. Time is experienced. There
is no infinite and abstract future; it grows organically from past to present.
Value is placed on "being" rather than on "doing". The universe is understood
through phenomenal interaction, which produces powerful symbols and images,
which in turn communicate truths. "Diunital" logic indicates that in African
thought athing can be both A and not A atthe same time. Though Dixon does
not say it explicitly, what he calls "diunitallogic" can be understood asthe
recognition and affirmation ofthe ambiguity and multidimensionality of
phenomenal reality.
(Ani, M.:1994, pp. 97-98)
The difficulty I have with all ofthis isthat I have a resistance to regarding any group
of persons as anything more than a collective of individuals loosely bound together by
some or other, sometimes arbitrarily imposed, rubric. I am conscious therefore of an
unwillingness to see black African dramatists as an homogenous unity of creative
artists, with a common set of background experiences, a common response to political
and social imperatives, or even a common vision of what it isto be African. A reading
of Schauffer' sinterviews reveals awide range of approaches, different backgrounds,
and even a few commonalities .Ofthese one could list the direct or indirect influence
ofthe oral tradition. Even so, ifone gathered together agroup ofwhite African
dramatists and asked them whether or not their parents or grandparents told them
stories, ortaught them nursery rhymes, or ifthey encountered storytelling in one form
or another at pre-primary andjunior school, I should imagine that everyone would
admit to experiencing this as part oftheir childhood. The oral tradition then is
common to all cultures but is arguably more prominent in some than in others. This is
not to deny the strength and importance of storytelling as atradition in black African
society, but such a tradition is not exclusive to black African society. What emerges
25
by degrees in this work is a tendency towards post-modern thought, and this too
makes it very difficult for me to impose upon a term like' African' a fixed, set,
immutable meaning. The term' African' has no intrinsic meaning beyond that which
can be derived from the context of contemporary common use or from that which is
negotiated with an audience (see for example H. Blau, 1990, Carlsson, 1996). Apart
from the reasons cited earlier for the use of the adjective 'black' in the title, the above
observations serve to provide further justification for such use. The addition of the
word 'African' in the title simply provides a geographic delimitation.
Dramatist versus Playwright.
Moving on then to the term Dramatist, it has been argued that the term Playwright
would have been more apposite. 'Playwright' is indeed a most suitable word as its
literal meaning is 'maker of plays' and in the African context, where so much reliance
is placed upon the spoken rather than upon the written word it would seem to be the
preferable term for use in this study. A dramatist is quite simply defined as a writer of
plays. Why then has Dramatist been chosen in preference to Playwright? The
problem that any theatre researcher faces is the sheer ephemeral nature of the subject
of investigation. The act of theatre involves the negotiation of dramatic meaning with
a live audience, and such negotiation is in a constant state of flux. Let alone from
performance to performance, even within a single performance the actor/audience
dynamic is changing all the time. On one night, let us say, a cell phone rings at a
crucial moment in the play disrupting the negotiation of dramatic meaning. Some in
the audience laugh some appear to be angry - who can say what the exact nature of
the audience response is? On another night the same incident could produce
26
something that could be read as embarrassed silence but again who can say if this is in
fact the case?
Research into the performative aspects ofthe art of theatre involves an active
presence at lor in performance in order to encounter the subject. A play script, as has
frequently been pointed out, is in most cases simply the skeleton in print of what must
be fleshed out in performance. Aside from literary drama, which is written to be read
more often than performed - or indeed, intended only to be read - there exists written
dramatic scripts that are the only relics of performances that researchers can now
encounter.
This dissertation limits itself to the study of such 'relics' as the only practicable means
now remaining whereby such works can be studied. Video or television recordings are
excluded, firstly because they are relatively rare, secondly the quality of the filming
does not, one suspects, do justice to the production being filmed, and thirdly (and
possibly most importantly) film is a distinctly different medium from live theatre.
Analysis is therefore to be undertaken via methodology specific to the medium in
question. Practical necessity therefore makes the term 'dramatist' (as a writer of play
scripts for production or as a post-production record) a more appropriate choice than
'playwright' (a creator of plays for performance).
Drama vs. Theatre
Special attention must be given to the terms 'drama' and 'theatre'. As suggested above
the term drama is used here to refer to the text-based play written by a dramatist.
27
However theatre has come into use asageneral term inthe sub-continent to refer to
alltheatrical events and presentations, often used asasynonym for drama onthe one
hand and performance onthe other.
Theatre indeed occurs asaterm inaplethora oflabels attached to anenormous
variety oftheatrical (performance-based) activity encountered inthe sub-continent 6,
and comes inahuge range ofinterrelated forms -identified by well-known and not so
well-known names -many ofwhich have been studied separately over the years. The
more familiar inthe regions discussed include Educational Theatre (as distinct from
Drama-in-Education), Community Theatre (an important form inAfrica, which will
be discussed inChapter Seven) Theatre for Development, Worker's Theatre, Protest
Theatre, Theatre for Resistance, Theatre for Awareness, Outreach Theatre,
ProfessionallSemi-ProfessionallAmateur Theatre, Donor-generated Theatre, Formal
Theatre, Serious Theatre, Popular theatre, People's Theatre, Legitimate Theatre,
Industrial Theatre, Agit. Prop. Theatre, Committed Theatre, Township Theatre,
Musical Theatre, Ethnic Theatre, Traditional African Theatre, Indic Theatre,
Eurocentric Theatre, Afrocentric Theatre, Dance Theatre, Improvised Theatre,
Physical Theatre, Street Theatre, African Theatre and soon. There are no doubt many
more not listed, but itisnot the intention here to pick through the niceties of
differences between such labels -many writers have already done so (see
Bibliography). Suffice itto saythat anyblack African dramatist or collective,
working inany category oflive theatre that has produced scripts will be considered
eligible for consideration here. The key isthe existence ofascript of some kind -
hence the preference for the term drama.
28
One other point about the term theatre however, isthat inEuropean-American usage
itisalso used to refer to the building utilised for performance. However, inaregion
not noted for its quantity of structures erected forthe specific purpose ofpresentation
theatrical material, and not noted for easy access tothese structures bythe majority of
the people, the association ofthe term 'theatre' with abuilding isnot strong.
1.4 Methodological issues
The audience
An interesting point about the theatre building discussed above isthat inanurban
environment the younger generation now frequents 'movie-theatres' that were largely
reserved for white audiences only, until comparatively recent times inSouth Africa.
Township dwellers previously would seeKung Fu movies and old 'politically safe'
movies, asdetermined bythe Publications Control Board, incinemas that were
referred to, inthe remembrance ofthe writer, asgoing tothe bioscope, scopes, flicks,
orfilms. The kind ofatmosphere insuch venues, inthe so-called Indian, Coloured,
andBlack African areas was noisy and illdisciplined. The growing middle-class in
such areas shunned the cinema and turned more and more to TV and VCR hire
material and latterly to DSTV satellite transmission onpay-channels. And this has had
anenormous impact onthe role oftheatre audiences in South Africa -and hence on
the ultimate texts and performances produced.
Anyone who has been part ofatheatre-in-education company (as the author was
between 1993-1995) or inacompany presenting syllabus items -inevitably drawn
29
from the Eurocentric cannon of dramatic literature - will have encountered audiences
who, quite logically transfer to the encounter with Shakespeare, learned behaviour
patterns associated with attendance at Kung Fu movies - their closest experience of
anything similar in their experience of witnessing performance, 'canned' or live. The
audience is thus a very important aspect of African drama, theatre and performance.
However, there is a difficulty for the researcher in this, for as Herbert Blau points out
in The Audience:
How we think about an audience is a function of how we think
about ourselves, social institutions, epistemological processes,
what is knowable, what not, and how, if at all, we may
accommodate the urge for collective experience. Collective in
what respects? To posit such an experience seems no more than
a snare or delusion, since it must contain the slippery dialectic
and discursive claims of desire, as well as the more unambiguous
claims of the dispossessed who at that particular moment in
history happen to be no part of the collective.
(Blau, H.: 1990, pp. 28-29i
Without pursuing further discussion on the complex issue raised by Blau's ideas, it is
obvious that - given the restrictions of this study - that it would be irresponsible to
make any claims for and on behalf of the 'audience' in the following discussions, and
it will be strenuously avoided - except where the term is used by others either in print
or in live interviews. Whilst it is acknowledged that playscripts at various times in
history have been written to be read, rather than to be performed, the kind of play
script that this thesis is concerned with is that which is written and intended for a live
public performance.
30
This position of course gives rise to anumber of difficulties in methodological terms.
The fact that alive performance constitutes the essence oftheatre isproblematic in
itself (how do you 'capture' it in scientific/critical terms for example), but there isthe
further complication that no two live performances will ever be the same, given all the
many variables that impact upon the negotiation of meaning in atheatrical context
(See Hauptfleisch's diagram of Theatre as a S'ystem of Processes, in Appendix 1for
example). The fact isthat itwould be totally impracticable for any researcher to have
been physically present in the audience of each and every performance of each and
every play script required by aresearcher for aparticular study. No wonder most
researchers eventually (re)turn to the (written, printed) play script itself as the most
useful theatrical artefact (i.e. as athing made by art - inthis case the art of the theatre
and performance). And we do so here as well, for though the text can only be
considered as aperformance waiting to happen, it does at least remain as apermanent
relic ofthe ephemeral creative processes it is intended to generate, and through our
study ofthe written/printed script we can, to an extent, imply the creative processes of
actualisation. Like a palaeontologist studying a fossil it is possible to determine from
the sample all manner ofthings. It ispossible to build up a complex picture of the
fossil when it was a living organism, using an assessment methodology pertinent to
the field. In this way areasonably accurate picture can be obtained. In the same way
atheatre researcher (or theatrologist ifyou like) using methodology pertinent to the
field, can build up a reasonably accurate picture ofthe living play script intheatrical
production. This leads then to the consideration of a second aspect ofthe
methodology utilised inthis study.
31
Dualism and Non-dualism
The way people see the world around them has aprofound effect
upon the manner inwhich their society functions. Western
society for example, isbased upon the notion ofthe primacy of
the individual. This isprofoundly different from indigenous
society, where each person is first and foremost apart of the
group, and the group itself is an aspect ofthe natural world.
Rather than people insisting upon individual rights and freedoms,
they acknowledge their obligations and relationship to society
and to the earth.
(peat, F.D. 1996, p47)
The "indigenous" society Peat refers to inthe above extract isthat of the Native
American people ofNorth America, but in essence the comment can be applied to
traditional societies inthe southern sub-continent of Mrica as well -which isthe
geographic site ofthis study. Speaking within the context oftheatrical evaluation in
South Mrica, Dennis Schauffer, in apaper entitled Can Blue Men Sing the Whites?,
refers to 'individualist' and 'collectivist' cultures.
I must acknowledge a dualism in my thinking ... because
inevitably bipolar antimony is implicit in such a division. I
cannot escape my own European cultural background, which has
placed itself squarely in the individualist camp, ever since Plato
described justice asthe triumph ofthe rational mind over blind
passion. The man of reason becomes the patriarchal ideal in
Western European philosophy and by implication, systems of
thought that do not foreground the individual become associated
with the uncivilised rule of unreasoning mass instinct,
32
unquestioned ritual observed for its own sake; an order without
progress, achievement, or logical command of individual destiny.
(Schauffer, 1996a, pS9)
The two world views he terms Individualist and Collectivist above, play themselves
out for this writer in two idiomatic expressions: Descartes's famous Cogito ergo sum
CIthink therefore I am') and the Zulu maxim, Umuntu, Ngumuntu, Ngabantu, ('a
person is a person because of people'). Whilst the latter is an expression drawn from
Nguni culture, it seems to capture an attitude prevalent in African society in general.
To illustrate this dualist perspective, Schauffer (1996a, p.62) adapts a table of
contrasting values for the two cultural worldviews from the work ofL.R. Kohls:
Individualist Cultures
Mastery over nature
Personal control over environment
Doing
Future orientation
Change
Time dominates
Human equality
Youth
Self-help
Individualism/pri vacy
Competition
Informality
Directness/openness/honesty
Practical ity/efficiency
Materialism
Collectivist Cultures
Harmony with nature
Fate
Being
Past or present orientation
Tradition
Personal interaction dominates
Hierarchy /rank!status
Elders
Birthright inheritance
Group welfare
Co-operation
Formality
Indirectness/ritual/'face I
Idealism/theory
Spiritualism/ detachment
33
Later Schauffer (1996b, p.12) added to the list:
Individualist Cultures
Linear logic
Dualistic
Collectivist Cultures
Cyclic/cosmic logic
Nondual
It isthis last addition that is of interest to us from a methodological perspective.
Robert Armstrong inWellspring: On the Myth and Source of Culture points out that
western culture and western thought is shot through with dualities.
Dualities abound, constituting our civilisation. Our religion is
premised upon good and evil, and indeed could not exist were it
not for the presence of evil, which endows it with meaning and
efficacy. We analyse the unitive work of art into form and
content; and we construct alogic based upon right and wrong.
Our languages are of subject and object. Our science is one of
the probable versus the improbable, the workable as opposed to
the unworkable, matter and anti-matter -all revealing more ofthe
nature ofthe scientists mind than ofthe actual nature of the
physical universe. I
(Armstrong, R.: 1984, p. 115)
A little later in the same work Armstrong concludes:
In large measure then, the myth ofthe consciousness of Western
Europe isthe myth ofbi-polar oppositions
(Armstrong, R., 1984, p.117)
34
To be conscious ofthe duality and these bi-polar oppositions isone thing of course,
but what to do about it inthe process ofthis research is quite another. In this study I
am conscious of very many major dualities created by the baggage I inevitably carry
with me; the inheritance of my past and architect of my approach to everything I
encounter in my life. I am awhite person with a Christocentric, Eurocentric
background, English speaking (and not able to write, read or speak any ofthe
indigenous languages or for that matter a colonial language like Portuguese, which is
used almost exclusively by dramatists inMozambique.) Furthermore, as awoman, I
am studying a cultural phenomenon heavily dominated by males. More personally and
critically though, I am by circumstance bound to Gauteng and must rely on published
and unpublished literature and upon the fieldwork and observations of others to feed
into this study. Thus, while being at one remove from the interviews themselves, not
having participated myself, I nevertheless do have access to printed transcriptions,
audio tape recordings, and video recordings ofthese encounters and can interrogate
this material -though with a consciousness of the baggage I still carry into the
exercise. This naturally sets up yet another set of dualities, of which I am only too
conscious.
All of this having been acknowledged, Ibelieve there is also an advantage to be
gained by the circumstances described. By using the fieldwork data of others rather
than being part ofthe process, it may just prove to be auseful device through which
one may achieve some measure of objectivity, particularly in terms of the important
comparative element inthe study. Were Ito have undertaken the interviews myself, I
doubt whether I could have, ironically enough, maintained the same level of
35
consciousness of these dualities in the midst of arranging interview times, loading
cameras, checking on focus, light levels, and the like.
However, it is important not to turn the perceived dualities into verities. To illustrate it
is of interest to note that in working with the interviews with Black African dramatists
conducted by Dennis Schauffer, I soon recognised that many of the interviewees
made very little distinction between terms such as 'drama', 'theatre', 'script', 'musicals',
'dance' etc., but do make other kinds of distinctions. Vickson Hangula in an interview
conducted in Windhoek on the 24th of May 2000, (N/VH) for example clearly
differentiates between 'professional staged plays' and some 'church performances' he
saw as a child but Enoch Sipho Mtetwa from Swaziland interviewed in Lesotho,
Maseru on 22 June 2000 (SIESM) refers to his group as a 'drama group' but he was in
fact presenting 'choral singing and African dancing' without anything that would be
classified in Eurocentric terms as 'drama'. In interviews with representatives from
community theatre groups such as BRICKS in Katatura in Namibia, and Ghetto
Artists in Francistown, Botswana, the terms 'drama', 'theatre', and 'performance' are
often used as synonyms and for Andreus Mavuso interviewed in Maseru, 22 June
2000 (SIAM) regimental ritual ceremonies of the Monarchial Institution in Swaziland
are 'theatre'.
In such instances it has been suggested that a more flexible approach, termed a non-
dual approach to research by Katz, Schauffer, Pillay and others, can perhaps assist.
To illustrate the essence of it, Jerry Katz quotes from the Lankavatara Sutra, a chapter
in the Buddhist Bible (see: http: www 3.ns. ympatico.ca/umbada/faq.htm):
36
... take good heed not to become attached to words as being in
perfect conformity with meaning, because Truth is not in the
letters words ... were intended to be no more than a pointing
finger What matters is that one attends to one's intuition ...
Having done that, one may use words to point out what they
intuit.'
However, as any student of drama will be aware, Ionesco and other Absurd Theatre
dramatists surely made similar or related commentary on language and the use of
words half a century ago, and their ideas have been followed up by the whole post-
modernist movement in the arts, assisted by the philosophers and linguists of the
twentieth century. Language, they all remind us, is a human construct. Yet people
would still want to argue that though the divine is beyond human experience, we can
use mortal (i.e. fallible, imprecise) language to 'prove' or to 'imply' the existence of
the divine - which is absurd, as Beckett and co would suggest.
In place of the non-dual methodology suggested by Pile and Katz 8, the strategy
proposed was to borrow the action research device of triangulation and to adapt this
concept to the present needs by adding a fourth item - making this a 'quadulation' if
you like.
Quadulation and the data utilised
There seemed to be four categories of information that could inform such an exercise:
1. Play scripts
2. Biographical data, press cuttings, video recordings, articles.
37
3. Interviews and interviewer's journal entries.
4. Socio-political milieu
Mindful of the baggage that the researcher brings to this exercise, the object would
have been firstly to examine selected play scripts in the context of the other two
categories of information, secondly to place this in a regional and socio-political
context and finally to assess the resulting material within a sub-continental overview.
The sub-continental overview proved, however, to be more difficult to achieve than at
first anticipated. In effect only a partial overview (if such a thing is possible) can be
attempted here, for reasons that will be outlined. However, even a partial 'overview',
could very well provide enough of an insight into the context of black African
dramaturgy in the region to provide the starting point for a more extensive study to be
undertaken, should funding again become available, and when political stability
returns to some of the regions (notably Zimbabwe at present).
Having attempted a first draft of this dissertation, and having received feedback from
my supervisors on the same, it became apparent that the objectives and approaches
outlined above were more difficult to realise than was at first envisaged regarding the
four categories of information suggested above, the following problems were
encountered:
1. Play scripts
Whilst some play scripts of South Mrican black African writers were accessible, far
fewer play scripts seem to exist in neighboring countries since the publishing
infrastructure there is less secure and the theatre practice there does not privilege
38
publication to the extent that it does in countries such as South Mrica and Nigeria.
Moreover those writers whose work is available are, for the most part, expatriates,
from countries, which have a publishing culture (e.g. again Nigeria and South Africa).
A conclusion that could be drawn from this is that in the non-South African sub-
continent, the surviving oral tradition, the social circumstances, the education
systems, and the oral culture in general is not conducive to dramatic writing or to
literature in general. It also became evident from Schauffer's field notes that such
texts that do exist were produced in order to demonstrate to overseas sponsors and
donors that the funding had in fact been spent in a responsible manner. Again from
the field notes it becomes clear that any permanent record of the ephemeral
performances of community theatre work was created as an 'accounting' procedure or
as co-lateral evidence to support claims made in funding proposals:
As I entered Ghetto Artists, I was surprised to see how well equipped the
modest house was. At the main desk there were two computers, a scanner, a fax
machine, telephones etc. In a back bedroom a videocassette machine was
playing a tape of one of the rural performances given by Ghetto Artists. I was
very excited and asked if it would be possible for me to get a copy. One of the
Ghettos explained that this would not be possible because the tape was about to
be posted abroad. The equipment had all been funded from a previous grant
which had been motivated for by arguing that this equipment was necessary to
record productions so that the funding agency could see for themselves how the
money was spent. I asked about scripts and was told that these too had been sent
abroad .I was also told that in fact most of their work was not scripted at all. My
over-all impression was that the recording of production work in any form
whatsoever was undertaken for reasons other than out of a need to preserve an
archival record or out of a need to use the material for training, future revival or
for critical self-reflection. As is the case in Namibia no independent evaluation
of donor funded community theatre seems to be undertaken.
(Schauffer, D: Journal note 28105/2000)
39
2. Biographical data, press cuttings, video recordings, articles.
Whilst some biographical data was available, hardly any articles or press
cuttings exist for the bulk of those interviewees in Schauffer's files. Video
recordings were suspect for the reasons outlined above. It became clear to me
that there was an urgent need to move beyond the valuable, but in many ways
limited material that Schauffer could provide me with and upon which my first
draft so heavily relied.
3. Interviews and interviewer's journal.
A reasonably extensive collection of recordings and transcriptions could be read
in tandem with journal entries to provide much valuable information but here
again there was need for both expansion and exclusion because Schauffer's
interviewees were only asked the kind of questions that Schauffer required
answers to. These are not necessarily the questions that I would have posed in
view of my objectives. It is also necessary to delimit the study further by
excluding Mozambique, Zimbabwe, and Swaziland owing to lack of
representative material. This in turn raised the question: 'to what extent is it
possible to present an overview of the sub-continent when the sample of
countries under consideration has shrunk so drastically? A need to revise the
scope of the dissertation was therefore called for.
4. Socio-political milieu
40
Whilst itwaspossible togiveabriefoverview ofsomeaspects ofthesocio-
political background relative totheterritory inwhich thedramatist is
currently resident, thisprovides noinsight intoformative influences onthe
writing that derivefrom anentirely different socio-political background
encountered inthedramatists country oforigin. Inaddition there wasinthe
firstdraftinsufficient cross-referencing ofsocio-political details withthe
content ofscripts thatwere considered. Here againarevision wascalled for.
Text and Interpretation
Finally, thebasis ofthis study istheplaytext andtheevaluation oftheindividual
works iscentral tothethesis asawhole. However, theevaluation ofworks of
dramatic artinperformance cannot claimtobeanexact science. Today wearesimply
tooawareofthemanyvariables thathavetobetaken intoaccount whenreading and
assessing aplayandtheexpectations, prejudices andideological-critical position of
theevaluator arenotbyanymeans theleastofthese. Contrast current post-modernist
awareness withthefollowing comments byaninformed criticwriting bout TheArts
inSouthAfrica seventy years ago:
Artists ofWorld fame, oncoming toSouthMrica, havebeen
verygenerous intheirpraise ofthestandard ofwork acquired.
Ononeoccasion thelateMr.Arthur Bouchier, inaspeech atthe
conclusion ofaperformance byStudents ofDramatic Art,said
thatthere was "nolessthanthree performers whoweretheyto
cometoEngland, hadonlytoaskforanengagement, andthey
41
would get it;their work was polished, their technique splendid,
they spoke beautifully and had learned the art of standing still on
stage."
(Solomon, E.: 1933/34, p.199)
This patronising view isbased upon certain dated assumptions ofwhat does and what
does not constitute good performance and reveals anattitude towards evaluation and
assessment ofthe art which sets astandard based onthe cultivated, polite and
restrained practice of metropolitan British theatre. Measured bythese standards not a
single one ofthe works selected for study here, ortheir performances, would qualify
for consideration astheatre proper oras'Dramatic Art' in Solomons's terms. And this
isacritical issue for this study, for we are dealing with works created inaliminal.
space, aworld inthe throes of change.
The fact is,theories, principles and proclaimed notions ofart and artistry naturally
and inevitably vary from ageto age, from culture to culture, and from region to region
-even within the same culture. Itisarather sobering thought that, deny itthough we
might, inseventy years time from now some researcher isbound totease out a
statement or approach ortwo from our present critical methodological practice that
will, to future readers, seem naIve, simplistic, parochial andjust asculturally biased
asany other we have rejected.
Perhaps the most useful advance inour current thinking however has been the door
opened to eclecticism bythe post-modernist and post-colonial thrust inarts criticism,
andthe resulting rejection ofaprescriptive, 'universal' set ofvalues or approaches to
assessment. (For asummary ofthis shift, seethe works ofMarvin Carlsson for
42
example). For a long time now we have known that language and culture impose a
unique way of looking at the world. Persons from different language backgrounds do
not perceive phenomena in the same way, and the evaluation of phenomena depends
upon the grammar of a language for the perception and formulation of key questions
relative to such phenomena. More than half a century ago Benjamin L. Whorf
pointed out:
... the background linguistic system (in other words, the
grammar) of each language is not merely a reproducing
instrument for voicing ideas but rather is itself the shaper of
ideas, the program and guide for the individual's mental activity,
for his analysis of impressions, for his synthesis of his mental
stock in trade.
(Whorf, 1940, p.1)
More recently David Peat has reminded us that:
Within our European language and thinking we have a tendency
to group things together into categories. Thus we have generic
words like birds, fish, trees, rocks, mountains, particles,
thoughts, feelings, and emotions. Yet this form of categorizing is
not an inevitable feature of the human mind, for indigenous
languages support totally different forms of logic.'
(Peat, F.D.: 1996; p. 227)
Whilst it must be noted that Peat is referring to the American Indian indigenous
languages, the comment holds true for the situation in South Africa as well. To quote
but one example: the Zulu language divides nouns into various classes, and gender is
divided into male, female, common and neuter. Is it any wonder that the mother-
43
tongue Zulu speakers have difficulty in accurately applying gender pronouns in
communication in English? If language determines the way we perceive the world
then we have to take note of the fact that in South Africa we have eleven official
languages, namely, Afrikaans, English, Ndebele, Northern Sotho, Southern Sotho,
Swati, Tsonga, Tswana, Venda, Xhosa, and Zulu. Other African, Asian, and
European languages are also spoken. If then all of these languages support different
forms of logic and reasoning how can there be any universally acceptable system or
code of assessment for any social phenomenon including the theatre? Are we then to
apply eleven or more standards of judgement in our assessment of the work of Black
African dramatists, depending upon their linguistic and cultural backgrounds? Given
the plethora of languages in the subcontinent, grave difficulties are presented if this
conclusion was to be adopted.
What can be stated - and is illustrated by the quote from Solomons above, as well as
the reviews of numerous 'major' critics of the period before 1976 and even thereafter -
is that the Western, Eurocentric concept of theatre and attendant notions of excellence
in terms of the Western Eurocentric model of theatre production, became entrenched
in South Africa during the pre-democratic era along with a colonial education system,
a colonial system of justice, western communication systems, (railway, air travel,
radio, and latterly TV) and so on. What becomes problematic in this
acknowledgement is the possible implication that such systems were seen as superior
to those that they replaced and that they provided apriori models by which such
earlier or alternative systems were to be judged. The European model thus became the
canonized norm for all academic and artistic training, all critical discussion, all
44
'serious' creative endeavour and finally provided the model for the main-stream
theatrical system in the country till well into the 1980's.
Whilst many current works of black Mrican dramatists in the sub-continent conform
to Western models in many ways, it is interesting that many also acknowledge the
influence of traditional dramatic systems - and this begs further consideration. After
discussing the complications involved in the reconstruction of the dramatic systems of
traditional societies in South Mrica, Robert Mshengu Kavanagh concludes that:
... there is sufficient evidence to suggest that there existed in the
early societies rich and varied dramatic forms. Hottentot and
Bushman communities possessed certain forms, which included
mime, music, dance, costume, props, make-up and ritual.
Similarly the Nguni-speaking peoples practiced the various forms
of a dramatic nature, including the dramatised solo narrative,
intsomi in Xhosa and inganekwane in Zulu. Other peoples had
their equivalents. For instance, the Sotho praise-poems, liboko,
like the Nguni, izibongo, included definite dramatic elements,'
(Kavanagh, R.M.: 1985, p.44)
How does one then deal with works which fall outside the European model somehow,
or works which incorporate elements of the African and the European? In Theatre
and Society in South Mrica Temple Hauptfleisch presents us with a Diagram of the
Theatrical System (1.1 on the inside front cover of the book), which seems to offer
one way of dealing with the multitude of forms in actual practice from a more-or-less
consistent point of view. It is however still based on the working principles of the
imported colonial model, a point he admits when he says that a performance of
Hamlet by a state-funded Performing Arts Council may provide 'a rather more
45
obvious example of how the model would work' by comparison with a traditional
Zulu wedding ceremony, for example (Hauptfleisch, 1997, p. 4). This is an important
point for our purposes in this thesis, since the model would still be feasible for such a
ceremony but it would require 'a rather more free interpretation for many units and the
concepts they represent ... ' (Hauptfleisch, T. 1997, p. 4).
Indeed Hauptfleisch is at pains to point out that the model is not inflexible in this
regard. It is not:
... a rigid, fixed and somehow "given" entity, but a dynamic and
organic system of processes, a general (i.e. unspecific and
adaptable) and an open system, constantly changing as it interacts
with the larger (or macro) systems of the society in which it is
embedded.
(Hauptfleisch, T.: 1997. p. 4)
Given the fact that this enquiry concerns itself with dramatists and their dramatic
works (i.e. scripts) and that many such scripts are in fact the result of workshop ping
processes, or are the products of dramaturges (in the American sense of a scribe)
rather than of traditional dramatists in our sense, the possibility of a 'more free
interpretation' of Haupt fleisch's system is of importance here. It would certainly
require a closer link between, or even partial conflation of, what he refers to as
Channel B (the performance and production processes as Theatre) and Channel A (the
publication processes of the Drama Text) in order to accommodate the products of
workshop creation and the resulting (unpublished) scripts, since they are the core data
of this study. So, while Hauptfleisch's 'systemic' approach to theatre will be borne in
46
mind inthe discussions to follow, itwillbeincorporated into abroader methodology
based onthe 'quadulation' ofavailable data, asoutlined above.
1.5 The Structureand OrganisationofChapters
Asimple structure will beused inthe organisation ofchapters. Chapter One isthis
introduction. Chapter Two will focus onthe works ofselected black African
dramatists from South Africa with particular reference to Gibson Kente, Gcina
Mhlope, Matsemela Manaka, andZakes Mda. Chapter Three will consider dramatists
from Botswana, with particular reference tothe works ofDr. F.K. Omoregie and
interview with Vuyisele Otukile being considered. Namibia will be covered in
Chapter Four, with specific reference toFreddie Philander andVickson Hangula.
Chapter Five discusses Sonny Sampson-Akpan together with Tjotjela Mora
Mashapela and will provide aninsight into dramaturgy inLesotho. Chapter Sixdraws
together some tentative threads ofinformation on Swaziland, Zimbabwe and
Mozambique. Chapter Seven discusses Community Theatre asaspecific form inall
the regions. Chapter Eight seeks tentative conclusions.
Anumber ofappendices are alsotobeoffered toprovide material difficult to access.
Theproblems attaching tothe above will beobvious. Itishighly debatable whether
the selection above canbe seen asrepresenting allthe works ofblack African
dramatists inthis vast andfast-developing area. Some comment willbe offered on
the reasons for selecting particular writers andparticular works butthis is
acknowledged asbeing asubjective selection and simply anattempt to outline some
47
of the parameters of the field. In some cases it must frankly be declared that the
material dealt with was all the material that could practicably be gathered at the time.
It is quite obvious therefore that a follow-up study is needed (as indicated earlier) that
could make good the acknowledged shortcomings of the scope of this work. It is
hoped however that this study will be seen as a pilot study in uncharted fields, and
will have achieved the laying down of the foundations for such an extended study.
END NOTES TO CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION.
1 For a more detailed account see In the Shadow of the Shah: The ludic Contribution to our
Developing South African Culture. Asoka Theatre Publications, ludic Monograph Series No.
2
2 Students of Theatre and Film Studies at the University of Durban-Westville were required to
keep a log of their responses to class work, lectures, practicals and productions. Schauffer
would use this personal log material to identify problem areas in the courses offered and
students were encouraged to be quite open and frank in their written responses. This anecdote
is drawn from Professor Schauffer's response to one such student's entry, as narrated to the
writer in 1994 at a time when he was supervising my M.A. dissertation.
3 The quotation uses two abbreviations:
PAC - Pan African Congress (in its context - not to be confused with its other use as
Performing Arts Council).
SASO - South African Students Association
4 The Department of Drama of Durban-Westville published work under the heading Asoka
Theatre Publications. Playscripts and ludic theatre monographs were published. Publications
ceased with the closure of the Department and the demise of the discipline at the University of
Durban-Westville at the end of 1999.
5 Larlham also reminds us of Credo Mutwa's claim in On the Theatre of Africa that the
traditional Sotho tekansto and the Zulu umlinganiso, with their own performance styles and
performance spaces, have been in existence for thousands of years and certainly predate the
colonial period. Just to give the pot another stir we could also refer here to a footnote to
48
Flockemann's article on Gcina Mhlope's Have You Seen Zandile? In the South African
Theatre Journal on September 1991. In this footnote Flockemann comments on Maishe
Maponya's use of 'black' and 'Mrican' as reflected in an interview with Carola Luther which
appeared in the English Academy Review 1984: '... Maishe Maponya gives a rather
provocative definition when he distinguishes "Black" and "African" theatre, saying that for
him, "black" theatre is the kind of theatre projected by whites. As examples he gives
successful musicals like Ipi Tombi or " shows put on overseas by guys like Des Lindberg who
exploits Mrican culture." Mrican theatre, claims Maponya, "is the theatre that I as an African
create, it is my feeling from my gut.'" (Flockemann, M.: 1991, p.52)
6 The writer was part of a Theatre-in-Education Company at the University of Natal, Durban
from 1993 to 1995.
7 The issue of the audience is interrogated at great length in Herbert Blau's book The Audience.
Marvin Carlson, respected theatre researcher provides the following synopsis of the book.
'Frederick Nietzsche was certain that Euripides hadn't "the slightest reverence for that band of
Bedlamites called the public," Bertolt Brecht discovered at one point in his career that the
"sole spectator" for his plays was Karl Marx. And Virginia Woolf, writing in her diary near
the end of her life, contemplated the absence of the public: "No audience - no echo. That's
part of one's death. "
Moving from that distressing possibility, Herbert Blau considers the questionable assumption
of a commercial presence and the indeterminacy of the solitary spectator through a sort of
particle physics or sub-atomic view of theatre.
No more than image itself, the audience is viewed by Blau as participant and celebrant,
observer and beholder, eavesdropper and voyeur, "culinary" as in Brecht or cannibalistic as in
Genet, collective or solitary or intimately separate - or, as in the conscience - catching
mousetrap of Harnlet, "guilty creatures sitting at play."
8 When the thesis was first proposed, it was intended to utilise a self-declared non-dual
approach to the research material. Now, on mature reflection, the writer begins to question
whether a non-dual methodology can exist at all. After all this thesis has to be written in
words and has to employ linguistic logic which leads right back to the Buddhist 'pointing
finger' and to the danger of mistaking the finger for the thing pointed at. To employ a non-
dual methodology would 'logically' involve then the presentation of this thesis in the form
perhaps of an extended Buddhist Koan, the cryptic essence of which would render the work
un-examinable. Whilst on a purely metaphysical level this non-examinability might well be
an achievement in itself, in purely practical terms the work would not conform to the
requirements for theses presented for examination at the University of Stellenbosch, or I
suspect at any other 'western' University.
49
50
L.
CHAPTER TWO
South Africa
2.1 Introduction
It isclear that some kind ofgeneral overview ofblack African dramatists working in
South Mrica has been attempted by anumber of authors over the recent two decades
or so, including Robert Kavanagh, Kathy Perkins, Ian Steadman, Temple
Hauptfleisch, Peter Larlham, et al. (See Bibliography). The best general overview
freely available at present isperhaps Loren Kruger's in The Drama of South Africa:
plays, pageants and publics since 1910, which contains specific chapters onthis
(Kruger, 1999). However, inthe entry on South Mrica involume 3ofthe World
Encyclopedia of Contemporary Theatre (Rubin, 1997), Temple Hauptfleisch
proposes amore concise, though perhaps alittle artificially structured, approach for
such an overview, based on four major performance forms which, according to
Hauptfleisch, go to make up the broader tradition. The particular chapter concludes
with a summary ofthe current situation, inwhich he says:
Essentially the same four basic traditions (spoken Eurocentric drama, western-
style indigenous theatre, crossover workshop theatre and traditional indigenous
performance forms) continue to develop inthe country, mostly along parallel
lines. However, there are clear signs that increasing cross-fertilization may be
taking place, that the individual forms are less clearly linked to specific
companies and groups and that the country inthe 1990's was inthe midst ofa
search for new structures, forms and styles to suitthe rainbow nation of a
newly emerging South Africa.
(Hauptfleisch, 1997b. p.274 .)
51
The chapter uitilizes this categorization of forms to provide aconcise and useful
summary ofthe socio-political history ofthe region, which highlights events and
legislation which had an impact upon the theatrical tradition inthe country (see
Hauptfleisch, in Rubin, 1997, pp. 268-274). It is not the intention to repeat this whole
history here, but it may be useful to take aquick llook at some high points inthe
history, leading up to the role played by the four South African dramatists selected for
study here.
Several approaches to an overview could be entertained. There isthe historiographic
approach, for example, which would perhaps start with the first playscript inZulu by
ablack Mrican playwright Francis Mkhize in 1920, and then chart acourse through a
Xhosa play of 1925 Imfene Ka Debeza by Guybon Sinxo, on to Esau Mthethwa's
Lucky Stars improvised productions ofUmthakati and Ukuquomisa then on to the
productions ofthe Bantu Dramatic Society which was founded in 1933. Thereafter
we could move on to HI.E. Dhlomo and his only published play The Girl Who Killed
To Save, which was published in 1935 - and sothe chronology would continue.
Along the way we could comment on the claim by Albert Gerard in Four African
Literatures (1971) that Father Bernard Huss, the missionary based at Marianhill
Monastery inNatal, who encouraged Francis Mkhize, (who was a student ofHuss's)
to write the first play in Zulu, was also influenced by the style of Commerdia dell
'Arte. Inthe presentation of plays Huss allowed students the freedom to improvise in
and around the script. We can speculate further that this influence of free
improvisation survived inthe work ofthe Lucky Stars because its leader, Esau
Mthethwa was also one of father Huss's students. One could argue the merits or
52
demerits ofDhlomo's play or bewail the fact that Nimrod NT. Ndebele's play
Ugubudele Namazimuzimu published in 1941 has not received enough attention, and
that the plays of A.c.T. Mayekiso, published by Marionhill Mission Press have
received no attention at all - and so on.
Another approach would be to argue that the records of dramatised narrative forms
such as the Xhosa intsomi, or the Zulu izinganekwane should be the starting point.
Alternatively that the dramatised praise poetry of the Nguni izibongo and the Sotho
libiko should be this point of departure. Another argument could be that geographic
boundaries were colonially imposed and Southern rather than South Africa should be
the declared site of the study (which it happens to be in this instance). Whilst the
colonially imposed boundaries between nations in the sub-continent may have created
differences in cultural perception internalized over time, such differences would not,
so the argument could go, have been all that marked in, shall we say, the nineteenth
century. One could then perhaps argue that the real start to our enquiry for Southern
Africa should be with what Kavanagh has called 'the earliest recorded examples ...
the dramatised animal satires of Job Moteame and Azariele M. Sekese in Lesotho in
the 1880's' (Kavanagh, 1985, pAS).
Another distinction could be attempted between literary drama, written to be read
rather than performed, and that which functions as the startpoint for a live production,
or that which is a record of what emerged from workshopping or other forms of group
authorship. This is not even to enter the debate concerning the strict definition of the
Oral Tradition, in order to record that every black African dramatist interviewed by
Schauffer acknowledges directly or indirectly the influences of what they understand
53
to be the Oral Tradition. It is equally impossible to deny that publication of scripts is
a major problem, for both the playwrights and researchers. The township musical
tradition, inspired by King Kong and established by Kente can be seen to have its
latter-day follow-through in the work ofMbongeni Ngema. Then one has to take
account of Protest theatre (that appealed to the middle class and to liberals) and
Theatre for Resistance (which was Agit prop and alternative in vision) bringing into
focus the issues of Black Consciousness and Pan Africanism.
The most troublesome question arises as to whether or not there is anything at all that
can be regarded as unique to the dramaturgy of black Africans south of the Zambezi,
or north of it for that matter. What is clear from the sub-continental study as a whole
is that the 'popular' movement is towards community theatre as defined by Schauffer
to Vuyisele Otukile (see Chapter 7). This is so strong as a tendency that it deserves
separate consideration, which it will receive in Chapter Seven. As a tendency it
moves away from the literary, away from scripts, away from Eurocentric expectations
of theatre practice, and perforce away from dramaturgy - which is the core subject of
this enquiry for reasons given in Chapter One.
2.2 Selection of Dramatists and Texts
In view of the above, let me honestly admit then that I have grave difficulty in
defining a specific startpoint to this study. To say that the study will start at 14hOOon
the 10th February 1927, or to say that the start is with K.E. Masinga's play Intombi
54
Yasegoli E Thekwini orwith H. Bloom's King Kong makes no sense unless such a
delimitation isinformed by some overarching vision orthesis to be examined. This in
turn may determine the shape and form this investigation ismeant totake.
Inthe present case the aim issimple enough, toundertake awide-ranging and
comparative pilot regional study ofform and structure inselected plays. Sowhat
emerges inevitably isapreference for anoverview based onthe self-declared personal
selection ofafew personalities and playscripts. This ispretty much what most other
researchers in Southern Africa and the many researchers who tend to appear inthese
climes for afew months during sabbaticals, oronresearch grants, to produce articles,
reports, and even books ontheatre-related subjects relative to South Africa, have
elected to do.
Sothe rest ofthis chapter will focus upon the works offour prominent South African
dramatists. The choice itself isan individual viewpoint, based upon myown readings,
the research findings, fieldwork reports, interviews and research log ofDennis
Schauffer's work, andthe socio-political statistics forthe region. Acomparative look
atthe entries onthe various African countries under discussion inthis thesis inthe
World Encyclopedia ofContemporary Theatre, for example, will quickly indicate that
the sheer output interms ofplays and performances in South Africa isnot only vastly
more productive than that ofallfive the other countries together, but that the
production and publishing systems are stronger than elsewhere inthe region. It
follows that the published output of South African material isenormous by
comparison to that ofneighbouring countries, asisthe volume of critical literature.
The bibliography ofthis thesis andthe cumulative index tothe South African Theatre
55
Journal (Volume 15, 2001) also illustrate the extent to which South Mrican writing by
black Mrican writers has received critical attention, particularly over the past twenty
or more years. To select representative examples of South African dramaturgy is thus
both a difficult and an easy task, in both cases because of the sheer wealth of material
available. As with the rest of this thesis, the ultimate decision was dictated by the
additional (and previously unutilized) material available in the data collected by
Dennis Schauffer. The choice then fell, rather predictably, on the following four
innovative figures: Gcina Mhlophe, Gibson Kente, Matsemela Manaka and Zakes
Mda. Clearly there are many more that could have been used, but for the comparative
aims of this thesis, four will suffice. So let us tum to the work of Gcina Mhlope.
2.3 Gdna Mhlophe.
Gcina Mhlope is primarily known for one play (the widely published and performed
piece Have You Seen Zandile?), her poetry, and her influential role as storyteller and
oral poet.
The premier of the play Have You Seen Zandile? was at the Market Theatre,
Johannesburg in February 1986. It earned praise from the press and enjoyed good
houses, but Mhlophe received criticism from the male dominated ANC-affiliated
Cultural Desk at the time, which felt that she had strayed from the 'official' line on the
use of theatre for protest and as a weapon in the cultural struggle. In response
Mhlophe is on record as responding:
56
'When I did Zandile, I was criticised a lot by political-minded
people asking why was a powerful woman like me writing a play
like Zandile? If! can write about the masses, I can write about
me. I'm one of the masses.'
(Perkins K.A.: 1999, P.8l.)
Lliane Loots nevertheless reminds us of the strong political context of the play. She
praises the play because it 'reminds audiences of social injustice not only in terms of
racism but also in terms of gender and class analysis' instead of merely confronting
audiences 'with a single meta-analysis' of apartheid South Africa.' (Loots, 1996,
p.68). Loots goes on to offer the following discerning remark:
The story-telling narratives favoured by Mhlophe, too, are
political acts in that a form of literature not generally documented
or recognised is elevated as the main theatrical and structural
device.
(Loots, 1996, p. 67)
This last remark leads us to what interests us more particularly here, namely the
distinctive qualities ofMhlope's dramaturgy. Let us examine a few structural
elements and see whether they suggest possible readings.
The first issue is Mhlope's self-conscious employment of the techniques and
approaches of traditional storytelling in the structure and presentational method of
Have You Seen Zandile? In many ways it is a prime example of the influence of the
storytelling tradition upon the dramaturgy of contemporary Black Mrican dramatists
57
and is widely studied as an example of this. However, Mhlope's own position is a
little more ambiguous. In an 1987 intwerview with Kathy Perkins she said: 'Zandile is
very much like a story and it's natural that I wrote it. After all I am a storyteller ...
Yes, it's still theatre.' (Published in Perkins, 1999, p.80) It is a point Mhlophe
emphasises when she dedicates her play:
'To the memory of my grandmother, Gogo, who deserves praise
for the storyteller in me.'
From this it seems as if Mhlope thus clearly affirms a self-conscious and direct use of
the oral storytelling tradition and there appears to be no doubt in Mhlope' s mind that
storytelling was theatre. Perkins had conducted this interview in July 1987. By the
time Schauffer interviewed Mhlophe (in May 1990 - see Appendix 2), there seemed
to have been a rethink on that subject. At one point in the interview Mhlophe says:
Ijust don't belong in theatre. I feel very much at home
in storytelling ... Everytime when I was winning awards
and getting wonderful write-ups, and getting roles left
and right and just having a good time, I kept saying, "I
don't belong in theatre. Ijust don't feel right here. I'm
flying with crooked wings ... " So in 1990 when I left
theatre and moved into full-time storytelling ... I knew
that I was straightening up and I'm flying right.
Schauffer has suggested that the distinction being made here is between the kind of
Eurocentric type of theatre being done in Johannesburg in the so-called 'mainstream'
theatres of the time and Mhlophe's own, distinctive and more 'community' focussed
type of performance. Because of this built-in ambiguity, and given the fact that Have
you Seen Zandile? it is a scripted work, performed mainly in formal theatre structures,
58
it appears that the play falls more into the category of what Hauptfleisch has called
crossover workshop theatre than into a category of traditional indigenous
performance.
Of course the oral tradition covers a number of culture-specific oral forms such as
myth, legend, praise-singing, praise-poetry, saga, epic, ritual chants, ceremonial
invocations, traditional songs, fairytale, nursery tale, fable, folktale, allegory, parable
etc. and it has a common factor, the fact that in their original forms all ofthis was
transmitted orally in performance from generation to generation. Traditional
storytelling is thus similar to the category 'folktale', but allows for greater innovation
in the presentation of traditional themes; it provides the storyteller with the license to
present old wine in new bottlesl. In Mhlope's case, despite her own later reservations
about her position as playwright, she takes the adaptation one step further, turning
oral storytelling into theatre.
The structure of the play involves the presentation of fourteen short scenes that trace
the central character's rights of passage into womanhood over a ten-year period up
until she is 18 years old. The name of the central character is Zandile, a name which
means, 'the number of girls is growing.' As Mhlophe herself points out 'it could mean
that the contribution of women in the arts is growing.' (Perkins, K.A.: 1999. P. 81)
The play is largely autobiographical and it is significant that the stages in the central
character's development are marked by encounters with other important women in her
life. Whilst the central character in the two-hander is played by only one performer,
all the other characters (Grandmother, Mother, a schoolfriend, and finally an old
59
woman who isaneighbour) are played bythe another actress. Inthe original
production the roles were taken byGcina Mhlophe herself and Thembi Mtshali
respectively. Stephen Gray calls this multiple roleplaying a'metaphor ofprotean
transformation' and points to the ideological nature ofthis structural element, which
'isafrequent visual demonstration that no-one isever really "stuck" insociety's roles.
The play ... also heralds the people's ability to transform themselves.' (Gray, 1990.
p.85).
The second structural element inMhlope's work isequally laden politically inSouth
Mrica, namely her clear interest inlanguage per se. The opening speech inscene one
for instance, iseighty percent inZulu. Only towards the end do we encounter English
'I'llbring my crayons' and anglicised words "namacryons" and "iskipping rope".
Commenting onthe use ofmultiplicity of language registers, Mhlophe inan interview
with Schauffer says:
I speak Xhosa and Zulu, soIusethose two languages very much
when Iamperforming. Even if! amperforming inEnglish I
draw upon wonderful idioms from these languages. I'm aperson
who loves idioms Often Isaythem inthe original language. I
don't want to lose my audience but Iwant them totaste where I
am coming from.
(S.A/G.M)
Later inthe play, when Zandile isabducted by her mother tothe rural Transkei the
language moves to English with afew phrases inXhosa. Significantly enough
Zandile doesn't fully understand Xhosa atthis stage. When her mother responds to
herby saying, 'Sukugeza' ('don't be silly' inXhosa) Zandile latches onto the 'geza' part
60
of the word (geza: 'wash' in Zulu) and assumes that her mother has told her to go and
wash. The justification then for the almost exclusive use of English in this section is
that it is a Lingua franca between Zandile and her mother Lulama - who can be
expected to command a reasonable facility in the use of English because she was after
all a cabaret singer with the 'Mtateni Queens' in Durban. Zandile's progress is also
marked by her ever improved facility in the use of English and a growing love of
reading. In scene one Zandile's claim to competence in English amounts to 'Was da
meta be you?' by the end of the play this has shifted to a fluent command of English
plus expressions like, "Hey man!" a familiarity with Barbara Cartland books, and a
level of language usage appropriate to the world of the Rolling Stones, mini-skirts,
and platform shoes. She is also completely in command of Xhosa as is demonstrated
in her praise poem for Mr. Hlatshwayo, the retiring school teacher. John Kani, in an
interview conducted by Schauffer (SA/JK) at the Market Theatre on 31/05/1996,
recalls that as a young man he attended meetings on Sunday at a place called
Embezweni where people would speak in public and would be judged by their ability
to speak beautiful English and beautiful Xhosa. 'Learning English,' he says, 'was
learning that other culture. It was embracing them in their language and culture, and
accepting that we are both in that one square mile.'
In the first scene Zandile imagines Gogo putting a sweet into her mouth and she has a
conversation with the imagined presence ofBongi. In scene two the second actress
appears as Gogo and in later scenes she appears again as Lulama, Lindiwe, and finally
as the Old Woman. In other words the play starts with a single narrator peopling the
performance with imaginary presences - very much the technique used in traditional
storytelling. In scene two we meet Gogo who is presented as a warm, loving, caring,
61
wise oldlady who acts both ascustodian oftraditional values but also as stern critic of
the chauvinism endemic to her own particular society's attitudes, and wry critic ofthe
racism inherent inthe larger South Mrican society. Shelaughs when Zandile asks her
about the colour ofthe doll shehasjust given her 'why dothey always make them
pink?' The subtle critique isgently woven into her dialogue. The old lady becomes
quite strident, however, when itcomes to gender prejudice inXhosa society. Tom is
Zandile's father. He hastwo sons who areready to goto college. The old lady smells
trouble and asks ifZandile can come and staywith herbecause she knows that ifTom
ran short of money 'Zandile would bethe first to betaken out of school. Tom thinks
education isnot important for agirl. Hau! Even ifIhave to diedoing it,I'm keeping
Zandile at school.' (Mhlophe, 1998. pp. 8-9)
All ofthis isconveyed inamonologue sothat scene two again preserves the single
person address tothe audience which, asinthe first scene, harks back tothe technique
oftraditional storytelling. Ofthe fourteen scenes five are monologues and in scene
seven we encounter asimultaneous setting oftwo monologues with Zandile writing a
letter to Gogo inthe sand and Gogo with aphotograph ofZandile wandering into ask
the audience, 'Have you seenthis child?' Atthe end ofher appeal she delivers the
'title line', 'Have you seen Zandile?' The use ofthe direct address and the emphasis
upon monologues, the brevity ofthe scenes, the swift changing panorama oflocales
created through the use ofverbal suggestion, the movement ofthe second performer
from character to character, even the length ofthe work, which isshort enough to
make an interval quite unthinkable, allhelp to preserve asense oftraditional
storytelling.
62
Whilst thepublished scriptgives sometechnical instructions suchas'inapoolof
light' or'light slowly fadestoblack' itisquiteobvious thatthepiececouldbe
presented almost anywhere anditwould stillretain itspower astheatre2. Itwas, in
thissense, representative ofsomeofthebestpeoples playsofthecultural struggle
period, which usedthefluid, adaptable mimetic performance techniques ofthe
indigenous storytelling anddancetraditions totelltheir owncontemporary stories.
Another Black African dramatist inSouthMrica thatwasheavily criticised bythe
Cultural Desk wasGibson Kente. BraGib,asheisknown inDube, asection of
Soweto where helives, isknown asthefather ofthe township musical andhis
influence wasextensive andlivesontoday inthework ofMbongeni Ngema.3 An
overview ofSouth Mrican Black African dramatists wouldbewoefully incomplete
without aconsideration ofthismajor figure andhisparticular brand oftheatre.
2.4 Gibson Kente
During themid-years ofthetwentieth century aunique theatrical stylewas developed
inthetownships ofSouth Africabydramatists likeGibson Kente andSam
Mhangwane. Theso-called 'township musical' isahybrid formthat incorporates
elements ofMrican traditional dance andmusic, urbanjazz andotherblack Mrican
urban music anddance influences, intomoreEuropean narrative structures that derive
fromearlyradio plays inisiZulu andfrompopular filmsrather thanexamples oflive
theatre. AsKente saidinaninterview (SeeAppendix 3):
63
Wedidn't gototheatres - wecouldn't - butweallhadourtransistor radios and
wecouldwatch Kung Fumovies inhalls. Therewere alsosometerrible movies
made inSouth Africa -verypolitically safe.
(Gibson Kente .S.A./G.K.)
AsHauptfleisch reminds us,thekickstart totheevolution oftownship theatre could
ironically havebeenthefounding oftheUnionDefence Force (UDF)Entertainment
Unit.
Anumber ofthebesttownship jazz artistshadworked fortheunitandontheir
return totheirtownships someofthemformed avariety company which wasto
pioneer black entertainment inthecities.
(Rubin, 1997,p.*)
ThismovetowhatLoren Kruger (1999) waslatertocall'African vaudeville', led
directly tothe 1959production ofthemusical KingKong, which isgenerally
acknowledged tomarkthestartoftwodecades ofvitalandsuccessful presentation of
theblackurban stylewhich became known as'township musical' andwhich is
inextricably associated withthework ofGibson Kente.
'KingKong was ... theimmediate modelandinspiration forKente' saysRobert
Kavanagh inhisgroundbreaking work onSouthAfrican popular theatre (1985,
p.115), though Kente seemedtodisagree withthisclaiminaninterview withRolf
Solberg conducted duringtheperiod 1994-95 (theindividual interviews arenot
dated):
64
I can't say that there has been any outside influences when it
comes to writing music, because I have been indigenous in many
ways. And the same goes for theatre.
(Solberg, 1999, p.82)
Of course it may be that Kente is referring to 'outside influences' in the sense of
'international influences', and not specifically the brand of indigenous theatre
represented at the time by King Kong, a production much debated over the years. But
given this attitude expressed by Kente, it may be of interest to take a look at some
points of comparison between King Kong and Kente's own production of his play Too
Late some fourteen years later.
Purely formally the plays have a number of things in common. For example, at the
most elementary level both productions open with crowd scenes and both have
intervals - although an interval is not marked in the published version of Too Late. In
an interview with Dennis Schauffer, Kente told him:
Kente: My scenes are on average maybe four or five in the first
half and three or so in the second half.
Sehauffer: Do you have an interval?
Kente: Yes I have an interval, definitely.
(S.A./G.K.)
Both authors employed an 'American musical' format for the work, and this impacted
on many aspects of the work. In the Foreword to the published playscript of King
Kong for example, Harry Bloom (the play's nominal authorS) tells us that of the
seventy performers in the cast' many were experienced as concert singers, ..[but]
65
..only three had ever acted before, and then in a single small-scale production some
months earlier'. (Bloom, 1961, p.15) So the emphasis was clearly on the musical
qualities of the play, rather than the dramatic, a situation certainly exascerbated by the
fact that virtually no training was available at the time for black actors. Kavanagh
suggests that Kente, who was more interested in the musical and melodramtic
elements of the play, under these circumstances 'employed progressively less
educated, less well-known and younger artistes and trained them.' (Kavanagh R.M.:
1985. p.120). He might argue that he needed a certain style of performer, which the
usual channels did not supply - something like the argument for the manner in which
some TV soap and sitcom artistes are 'discovered' today.
Both plays make use of a live orchestra and in terms of the structure there is once
more a remarkable correspondence between the two works. King Kong uses twenty-
seven musical/dance sequences over thirteen scenes. Whilst Too Late uses exactly
the same number of musical/dance sequences over ten scenes.
In both productions non-conventional musical instruments popular in the townships
are used as solo instruments: in ,King Kong it is a 'penny whistle' and in Too Late it is
a mouth organ. To quote Kavanagh again there was in both:
An emphasis on episodic narrative, unified and carried by song
and dance, and a more pronounced use for physical and visual
expression than dialogue, made for a from that was rooted in the
oral traditions of Africa, as well as being more than adequate to
contain the content of Black urban culture.
(Kavanagh, 1985,p. 96)
66
The foregoing discussion also highlights another important matter shared by both
texts, namely the extreme importance ofthe actual live performance. (This is of
course not only true of these two scripts in particular, but also of black urban
performance in general. - See for example Larlham 1985, Hauptfleisch and Steadman,
1984 and Steadman, 1985 on this.) Neither one ofthe scripts can really begin to
record the level of energy in performance, the enlargement of emotion or the effect of
the black musical genre (which runs much deeper than words), the pace, precision and
frontality. These are all non-verbal aspects, which characterise the tradition of the
township musical. It is ironic then that we can access nothing ofthis essential
communication directly through the literary script -though there is substantial
secondary material on King Kong, with film sequences, arecording of the music, two
books and plenty of articles and reviews avalailable
Finally, both productions were largely commercial ventures intended to appeal to their
respective target audiences: predominantly white audiences intraditionally 'white'
urban performance venues for King Kong and black audiences inthe townships for
Too Late.
The foregoing comparisons thus do suggest that - despite Kente's apparent denials -
the King Kong legacy did influence the form he chose to use. And through him it
would not only influence the form of protest and popular theatre inthe country, but
alter the nature and shape of all theatre in South Africa - even ifonly marginally.
Perhaps something ofthe style he developed and the way it occurred can be traced
today in a derivative form perhaps, specifically in the productions of the flamboyant
67
Mbongeni Ngema, who went toJohannesburg in1979toaudition fora Gibson Kente
production. He explained hismotive forthistoDennis Schauffer inMay 1998.
Iwasn't really there forthework, likemost artistes were. Infact
allofthem cametowork formoney, butformeitwasatraining
course, practical training.
(S.A./M.N)
AftertwoyearsNgema feltthat hehadmastered theKente technique andasa
musician himself hefeltthat hecouldtakethismuch further. He andPercy Mtwa
were alsoinfluenced bythework ofFugard, Kani, andNtshona with works likeSizwe
Bansi IsDead andTheIsland. Ngema comments:
Weknew that wewanted tofollowthe SizweBansi kind ofstyle
sotherefore weneeded todevelop certain parts ofourbodies. We
alsofeltthat eventhough the SizweBansi stylewas exciting, we
sawthose productions again inJohannesburg andTheIsland as
well, andIalsoidentified thattheywere verygood, verypolished
productions butthey depended alotintalking. Theydidn't have
thepower thatKente had,sowe saidtoourselves, "How canwe
combine thetwo?"
(S.A./M.N.)
Ngema thus acknowledges hisdebttoKente forthenon-literary aspects ofhis
presentational technique, reinforcing theclaim made abovethatKing Kong -through
Kente andMhangwane andtheirprotege's andfollowers -ultimately inspired and
influenced awide-ranging tradition oflocalmusical-style political theatre. Important
subsequent practitioners include suchnames asMbongeni Ngema, Percy Mtwa,
Matsemela Manaka, Maishe Maponya, evenZakes Mda, andwhointheir turn were of
68
course influenced by other theatrical and political influences and imperatives as well,
but combined those influences with the township musical roots they could not ignore.
This is so, despite the fact that critics have always had problems with the use of the
popular musical form for potentially critical social commentary, protest or satire. One
of these is Robert Kavanagh (1985. p. 105) who goes on to discusses what he
perceives as '... the contradiction between the realism suggested by the theme's
political and symbolic context, and the artificiality ofthe American 'musical' form.'
Nevertheless, one may ultimately argue that some of the most dominant and
influential political work ofthe cultural struggle seems to have solved the problem of
the contradiction and owes something to the principles underlying the township
musical form and therefore to the pioneering influence of King Kong and Gibson
Kente. This same influence can be seen in Kramer and Petersen's District Six: The
Musical, Ngema's Sarafina, Junction Avenue Theatre Company's Sophiatown, and
even the radical Afrikaans 'kabarette' (=cabarets) of writer /lyricists such Hennie
Aucamp (Slegs vir Almal) and Koos Kombuis (Piekniek by Dingaan). Another kind
oflink is with the popular music of the townships as well as the pop stage.
In this context it is interesting to note that Kente, having attempted to appeal to the
more intellectual and elite audiences in the production of! Believe, came to an
important realisation after early closure of this production. He found that:
... the production only goes down well with the elite whereas I
write for the man in the street.
(Kavanangh, R.M.: 1985, p.121)
Kavanagh goes on to record:
69
Ajournalist, commenting onthe factthat Lifa was to play in
Durban at 11:30pm after the popular Umbhaquanga singer
Mahlathini wrote: "andthe people who goto seeMahlathini are
usually the same people who liketo seeGibson Kente shows."
In other words the proletariat patronised both Mahlathini and
Kente -though inactual fact itwas the lower strata ofthe
working class, migrants and domestic workers who tended to
patronise Umbaquanga.
(Kavanangh, RM.: 1985, p.121)
Kente not only saw histarget audience inthis specific way, but he actively created his
works with this target audience inmind and inthe process considerably adapted the
King Kong model, making changes which would obviously influence his subsequent
work either positively or negatively. Earlier we listed commonalties between Too
Late andKing Kong, so perhaps we may now consider some ofthe divergences.
Aswe have noted already, the first important difference isthat Too Late was created
by aBlack playwright for Black township audiences, whereas King Kong was created
by acollective ofpredominantly white liberals for commercial dissemination to
predominantly white audiences. Both were primarily commercial ventures andthis
meant that for both their appeals tothe respective target audiences had to be carefully
orchestrated. In Too Late there isatleast 50% more dramatic dialogue (by
comparison with King Kong) through which character and situation can be explored.
This shows amajor shifttowards amore flexible dramatic form, offering opportunity
for social and political critique. However, itisdifficult to place Kente's work inany
one specific category interms ofHauptfleisch's notion offour basic traditions, .since
there isacross-fertilization ofwesternized ,urbanized indigenous forms, some
70
formal spoken drama elements, and so on. Perhaps it belongs in the category of
crossover workshop theatre more than anywhere else.
In his discussion of King Kong, Robert Kavanagh (1985) has pointed out huge
discrepencies between the recorded performance and the published texts of the
musical. This applies equally well to Too Late, where the published script also differs
fundamentally from the original script handed to the cast at the start ofrehearsals.6
However, while it would seem that the differences between the King Kong texts were
mostly concerned with the popularization and commercialization of the musical, the
extensive variations, insertions, and even total rewriting of sections of Too Late,
appear to relate to an effort to introduce some political 'relevance' to the play. The
many variations thus demonstrate a clear attempt to be more critical of the socio-
political situation prevailing at the time. One could speculate that this might have
been in response to criticism that Kente received from anti-apartheid activists for not
using his theatre as a vehicle for sharper critique of the political environment.
When one compares the published version with the original, it is clear that an entire
page of dialogue has been added early in act one, in order to introduce the idea of a
common enemy, represented by the South African Breweries and symbolized by their
prime beer label 'Castle Lager'. Labour disputes at the time would have provided a
rich backdrop for reception of this label. Another thrust towards a hightened social
awareness is provided by the question of access to education as a basic human right,
which appears in the revised and published version of the play. There the point is
made that, in the case of a black South African, a B.A. or M.A. would be of no use,
for you are still perceived to be nothing more than a 'Bloody African' or a 'Mad Ape',
71
with no realistic hope of occupational opportunities inthe apartheid dominated South
Mrica ofthe time.
Similarly Act I scene 5isexpanded byapage and ahalf of dialogue which takes
place between the pass officer andthe three men seeking awork permit from the
Johannesburg pass office. Inorder to de-humanise the white officer to the maximum
extent, the audience only hears hisvoice from behind the counter and pink gloves are
used forthe whiteman's hands. The officer's dialogue ispeppered with Afrikaans
words -andthis isparticularly significant when one considers that inless than ayear
after Too Late opened the Soweto riots occurred andthat they were sparked, inpart at
least, bythe protest atMrikaans being used asamedium of instruction inschools.7
The Black characters respond inMrikaans inademeaning way with expressions such
as 'Eskuus, baas. [Sorry baas]' or'JaBaas [looking stupid andjust answering]' etc.
(p.109). The language isalso harsher: Officer: You got alotto say-Kaffir8 (p.l 0)
Just before he isreleased from prison we seehow Saduva has been changed by his
incarceration, atransformation mirrored inhislanguage:
Saduva [tothe other prisoner]: Fuck you! Wenzani?
What doyou think you are doing? (p.118)
Inthe revised version the Doctor stands up tothe officer and announces that hewill
take matters tothe officer's senior incommand. There isalso ashift inattitude
signalled bythe final solo byMfundisi, which ischanged from the hymn
'My eyes are on hills' inthe original to anitem entitled, 'Akukho Thixo Kulento'
[There's no Godliness inthis] inthe published version, which one has to assume was
more hard-hitting inthe context ofthe scene.
72
The fact isthat Kente's critics had long been accusing him of creating escapist
entertainment at atime when the theatre was being absorbed more and more into the
cultural struggle. Theatre atthat time was regarded as apotentially powerful means
of conscentising the masses. But theatre had to be committed to the struggle in order
to achieve this objective. In Too Late Kente thus seems to be moving towards this
commitment, but not convincingly enough for some. In Kavanagh's terms for
instance, he was 'an established member of the commercial and intermediate class ...
he thought predominantly in economic terms' (Kavanagh, 1985. p.118) Later
Kavanagh adds, '... by the time he wrote Too Late, Kente could in economic terms be
described as aBlack businessman entertainer who employed cheap unskilled labour
and sold his product to the black working classes and youth.' (Kavanagh, 1985. p.121)
This assessment may seem harsh, but it isborn out by the working script of Can You
take It? (held at the time of research inthe Drama Department, University of
Zululand, now closed). This bears three dates, namely:
Act One, Scene One - 5th February 1977
Act Two, Scene Three - 7th February 1977
Act two, Scene Two - 13th February 1977
This was the first play Kente wrote after the momentous event ofthe 1976 Soweto
riots (16 June 1976). The tone is set by the overture:
Park Scene
It's agay summer's day. Natures (sic) wears the best
colours. In high spirits a 'fun crazy' girl sings a song.
73
"Free to fly (got no responsibility)" as others join the
singing and enter into a dance.
While parents regret their loss of influence over their children and 'hate to think of a
day when we will have lost all the finer aspects of our traditional way of life', the
children challenge parental authority. Zuzu smokes and drinks in front of her mother,
Mrs. Vuma, and even invites her boy-friends home. She also chews gum. Mfundisi's
son Skade has brought banned books home. The comic character Natsona claims that
the children have been corrupted by 'bioscope and that thing that tells-a-vision'.
Essentially this is a love story of Jiki and Skade. Interspersed in the action is the
making, buying, selling, and eating of 'fat cakes'. (Now more commonly known by
their Mrikaans name of 'Vetkoek'). A plea is made for parental understanding but
neither parent in this case is accommodating. Letters that are intercepted and
destroyed add to a plot that amounts to a domestic comedy with the usual formula of
songs, dances, hymns and crowd scenes.
In fairness to Kente we do not have a published performance script of Can you take
it? And, as we have seen in the case of Too Late, the performance script and the
rehearsal script can differ substantially. The unpublished script of Can You Take It?
is then to be regarded as a kind of scenario in an advanced, but not final, stage of
development. Who knows what could ultimately have been made about the banned
books issue? On present evidence however the script tends to confirm Kavanagh's
assessment ofKente as a Black businessman entertainer more concerned with creating
marketable commercial productions than with using these for committed political
critique.
74
The same cannot be said for Matsemela Manaka whose work will be considered next.
2.5 Matsemela Manaka
Though not conservative, Barry Ronge has always been seen as something of an
'establishment' critic, so his critique ofManaka's Goree (Sunday Times of 19
February 1989) isremarkable, as he says:
... I must stress that I had avery powerful personal and
subjective response to the play. After a life lived inthis country
this was the first time ever that Igrasped, with complete
comprehension, the sense ofwhat it isto be an Mrican.
(Ronge, 1989,p. 5)
Dennis Schauffer's own response, as recorded in his Mananka file mirrors this
response:
Last night Matsemela Manaka presented Goree inthe Asoka
Theatre and naturally I was there. Quite what I expected I don't
know, but few productions here or elsewhere have impressed me
more. Ifeel that my understanding ofthe Pan-Mricanist vision
has been enlarged. I came out ofthe presentation elated and
enspirited with the notion that although I am white by accident of
birth, I have by virtue ofbeing born in South Africa, abirthright
to an incredibly rich African inheritance and aresponsibility to
myself to recover, nurture, and preserve what Ican ofthis
inheritance, ,
(Schauffer file marked Manaka. M.)
75
In reading this I began to understand something of why Schauffer chose to undertake
the study of Black Mrican Dramatists in the sub-continent.
If Kente's work is difficult to come to terms with when one does not have the power
of the music to underscore whatever impression arises from words of his scripts, then
Mananka's works are almost inaccessible, for by comparison they are even more
reliant upon performance aesthetics, as distinct from literary aesthetics. Of course - as
pointed out in the introduction - one could argue of all plays that the scripts are only
productions in potentia, and that it is the productions themselves that make theatrical
impact - either negatively or positively. What makes this difficult for me as a
researcher in the case of the Manaka's scripts for Egoli, Pula, Children of Asazi,
Toro, ,Goree, Blues Mrica Cafe, and Ekaya, is not that I do not have an intellectual
understanding of the writing, but that I lacked opportunities for contact with the live
theatrical production of such works before a real target audience.
This must limit my response to the playas a whole, yet as a 'theatre archaeologist' (as
YeYe Clarke termed it) or what I prefer to think of as a 'theatreologist' ( see p.18 for
explanation of this neologism), I do believe it is possible for me to pick through the
pile of artefacts and bare bones - the bare words of the printed scripts - to
(re)construct whatever animal I may make of them, conscious of the fact that other
'theatreologists' may very well end up constructing very different animals from the
same collection of bones.
76
There is however a further problem in all ofthis. In interviews with Davis (1997) and
Schauffer (1998 - see Appendix 4), Matsemela Manaka indicates that his scripts are
collaborative ventures, created jointly between himself as apresenter of an initial
scenario or concept and the cast, bringing their experience and expertise into play. For
this reason he could not create a script without first casting aproduction:
I always cast my plays before I can write them. Theatre is a
collaboration. We use the memory of our past with the
experience of our present to project avision of the future
(Schauffer: S.A./M.M.)
Steadman confirms this by making the point that:
Manaka must be seen, in relation to his work for Soyikwa, not so
much as awriter but as a scribe ofthe rehearsal process. He
treats his actors as creators, not merely as interpretive artists.'
(Steadman, 1986, p.3)
Even when the script has been set down this is not cast inbronze, for asManaka
points out, making an important distinction between the target audience for a
published script and the audience for the performed play:
... inthe performance they don't always say some ofthe things
... The written script istrying to satisfy readers, not viewers, so
that in the performance you saw ofEgoIi,I don't think they did
say "Uhuru Azania". I
(Davis, 1999, p.1)
77
This appears to be in response to the observation that Davis had made about the final
line ofthe script, saying that Manaka had openly declared his political allegiance in
the use of the expression 'Uhuru Azania.' This difference of opinion points to the
danger of drawing fixed conclusions from Manaka's scripts. Steadman draws our
attention to another glaring example ofthe misreading that can occur when the script
becomes the sole source for interpretation:
Kelwyn Sole exemplifies the problem in adeficient reading of
the work ofMatsemela Manaka. In his essay on "Black
Literature and Performance: Some Notes on Class and
Populism", SA Labour Bulletin, Vol. 9,NO.8, p. 70, Sole relies
on a defective review ofManaka's play Imumba for his
information, and elaborates, an argument based on the
misinformation given by atheatre critic. Sole's information is
that in the play the, "boss-boy" swallows his pride and leads three
workers to freedom ... this representing, he suggests, a 'petty
bourgeois' conception of liberation. What actually happens inthe
performance isthat the workers take the decision to admit the
"boss-boy" into the struggle for liberation ... a significant
difference. Sole could not have missed this had he witnessed a
performance. '
(Steadman, 1986, pA)
The fact isthat Manaka experimented boldly with the presentational aspects of his
plays in an attempt, one may surmise, to break the conventional actor/audience
relationship as experienced inEurocentric theatre and in an attempt perhaps to
establish the kind of relationship that would accord well with the communalism inthe
spirit of African thought.
78
For instance Manaka makes use of composite settings, which allows him to present
simultaneous action. So in Children of Asazi people rebuild their shacks upstage
whilst downstage the character Charmaine interacts with Diliza in abusy street scene.
In Toro the downstage isused as an interior of a house whilst the upstage contains
musical instruments. The directions for the presentation of EgoIiinclude the
comment 'The audience should be seated around the acting area and should not
exceed 200 people.' In other words the performance was envisaged as being
presented in-the-round - atraditional form as well as a (slightly dated) avant garde
form. In Pula whilst Mkhulu remains upstage holding the rope that the chorus have
tied around their necks:
Inside the audience, they deliver the same monologue in unison,
but in varying paces so that the effect is one of disjointed choral
speaking.
(Manaka in Davis, 1997, p. 92)
Ian Steadman was witness to an early presentation of Pula and he records:
As the lights changed for the second scene, the play was no
longer based on representation, but on a directly participatory
format. The audience in the Balckchain Hall became co-creators
of the dialogue and action. Izwe was on stage ... aplatform
raised above the audience ... and as the lights changed for his
departure from the rural areas, he descended into the auditorium
as an employee in a shebeen, selling beer to his 'customers' the
audience. He addressed them directly, offering drinks and taking
money (if members of the audience were prepared to part with
it).
79
(Steadman, 1986, p. 11)
Elsewhere Steadman tells us that a second actor transformed himself (changing his
costume etc) into a 'with-it' rake of the township. A third actor amused one part of the
audience with his drunken behaviour in his part of the auditorium whilst a fourth actor
amused another section of the audience with his impersonation of a tsotsi using
trilingual dialogue. Manaka's techniques are sophisticated and innovative and his
approach moves 'black theatre', as earlier defined, into eclectic, unexplored territory.
That this is deliberate is borne out by such instructions as we encounter in Toro.
The surrealistic visualisation of the celebration culminates in
them [i.e. the harpist, flautist, singer and dancer with rattles on
her legs] being part of the celebration. (my parenthesis)
(Manaka in Davis, 1997, p. 155)
This is a far cry from either Mhlophe or Kente. In my opinion the apotheosis of
Manaka's work was reached in Goree as directed by John Kani for the Market Theatre
in 1989. Whilst I only have the printed script and this, as has been argued, is but a
poor remnant of the live performances, there is still enough data available with which
to determine something of the rich amalgam of cultural theatrical elements in the
work. In just fourteen pages of script Manaka incorporates ten songs: 'The last boat
from Goree', 'Let the drums echo on', 'the freedom of singing without being told to
stop'song, a war song (acapella), 'Thembalethu' , 'Thula Sithandwa' , 'Untold Story'
(Jazz), 'Gae Gagezo' , 'Go black child', and 'Celebration Song'. In addition there were
two formal poems together with many injambed poetic sections in the dialogue.
There is the use of live musical instruments - reed flutes, Kora, djembe, and violin.
80
Even more remarkable isManaka's use of dance. Bob Leshoai, writing in City Press,
is quoted by Davis (1997) as saying that inthe programme there was anote to the
effect that the dances fuse various Mrican dance styles including: 'Venda, Tswana,
Xhosa, North Sotho, South Sotho, Ndbele, Swazi, Ghanian, Nigerian, Sengalese,
ballet, contemporary andjazz.' He uses them in avariety of ways, including awestern
ballet sequence, jazz dance, traditional Mrican dance, an opening dance representing
the experience of her search, atoyi-toyi, atraditional war dance, a satirical pseudo-
traditional dance as taught to Nomsa by Mrs. Daffodils (Association with Wordsworth
perhaps?) an ostrich dance, arhythmic sequence expressing the movement of a sick
person, and a spiritual dance sequence.
Interestingly though, this kind of eclectic syncretism isused as avehicle for a surreal
play which has as its central theme the notion that Mrican culture is still imprisoned
and will remain so for as long as it isdominated and misrepresented by others. As the
voice ofthe spirit of Mrica, Dba, says: 'Slavery was never abolished but polished.'
(Manaka in Davis, 1997, p. 180).
In the quoted article, Leshoai makes arather interesting comment about the
performances ofthe 'Mrican dance', astaught to Nomsa by Mrs. Daffodil. He says
'she makes it look like copulation' (Davis, 1997, p. 233). The image is atelling one.
The reading I have of this is ofthe rape of African culture by the forces of
Eurocentricism and the implications that Mricans will never be free until they reject
the misrepresentation ofBlack culture by others and take upon themselves the
responsibility of rediscovering their true roots. Nomsa's journey to the slave island
81
Goree to find Dba inorder to learn African dance, becomes then the symbolic journey
ofrediscovery.
Another performance detail only possible to gather from the live performance and not
from the script isthe following from Leshoai:
One ofthe most powerful moments iswhen Oba ismade to sing
through prison bars which are placed unobtrusively to one side of
the stage and only become obvious when she stands behind them.
Itwas apowerful statement that was saidtothe audience, "Your
prison cells may be invisible but arejust aseffective asifthey
were real."
(Davies, 1997,233)
Goree clearly fulfills Manaka's view ofthat theatre uses 'the memory ofour past with
the experience of our present to project avision of our future.' (as quoted earlier from
the interview with Schauffer, S.A./M.M.) Ofgreat significance isthe fact that the
essential meaning ofthe work isrevealed through the manner ofperformance as
received bythe audience, rather than through the words ofthe script. In this way
Manaka's work confirms Richard Southern's thesis quoted earlier (See Introduction
p.16) that 'the essence oftheatre lies inthe impression made onthe audience by the
manner inwhich you perform. Theatre isessentially areactive art.' (Southern, 1977,
p.26)
Sofar inthis overview of South African Black dramaturgy Ihave dealt with Gcina
Mhlophe (what one might callthe the storytelling tradition) Gibson Kente (the
township musical tradition) andMatsemela Manaka (the crossover, Africanist
82
tradition) , but I feel that there is a category of writing that is not represented as yet in
this selection and that is the writing that is more 'literary' in its approach. I now turn
to the works of Zakes Mda in order to look at this.
2.6 Zakes Mda
Loren Kruger regards Zakes Mda's play And the Girls in their Sunday Dresses as
worthy of a place in the South African repertoire of regularly presented items, but she
notes that:
..despite its merits, the play has yet to be produced in South
Africa.9 The cause for this neglect is not censorship, although
the portrayal of the haughty "office girls" might rile some
government bureaucrats accused of lack of accountability, and
the critique of the gap between the newly powerful and the still
oppressed may strike some directors of subsidized theatres as an
outdated preoccupation with anti-apartheid paradigms.
Community theatres, which have no guaranteed sources of
funding, tend to prefer work written locally or in house by
authors not expecting, royalty payments and strict adherence to
the text.
(Kruger, 1999, p. 190)
Zakes Mda does in fact involve himself in community theatre, notably so in Lesotho
whilst he was lecturing at the University of Lesotho at Roma. As he described it:
I do something which is called theatre for development which I do out
there in the community in the mountains of Lesotho and so on.
(S.A./ZM)
83
In an interview with Mahendra Raghunath for the Asoka Theatre Profile Series he
continues:
I've done things over the years for fun, for the love of it and so on
- now it is time for me to get the returns for all the work, which is
what I'm doing now. Of course I do donate my time to
community groups in Dobsonville, for instance - I go there
sometimes and work with them. That's my way of ploughing
back into the community whatever experience I gained over the
years
(S.A./ZM)
In his doctoral thesis, published as When People Play People, Mda records more
specifically the ways in which theatre can be used in rural social developmentlO.
Included in this publication is an appendix, which reproduces the scripts of five plays
presented by the Theatre ofMarotholi. The scripts are translations by Mda of video
or audio recordings of presentations in rural Lesotho, that were created through
facilitators interacting with the community in order to produce works of communal
authorship. So through his direct practical work as one such facilitator, Mda
contributed much to theatre for development. (See also chapter 8.)
On quite another level, however, Mda also contributed significantly to the literary
drama tradition. He explains the origins of his interest in literature in an interview
with Venu Naidoo published in Alternation (4.1.1).
I come from a family of readers. From an early age I started
reading comics ... My father was a teacher and later became a
84
lawyer. He was reading all the time and he was writing as well.
... So, growing up in an environment where everyone was
reading, one developed the habit of reading. I strongly believe
that to be a good writer you need to read.
(Naidoo, 1997, p.1)
.Whilst Mhlophe, Kente and Manaka could recall their direct experience of traditional
storytelling Mda had less exposure to such traditional forms, as he tells us in the
interview with Raghunath:
... I was not fortunate enough like other people who might have
grown up in that kind of rich environment, you know with
grandmothers who had stories. My grandmother was a school
teacher and my grandfather was a chief and they were involved
in education and social administration. So there was never time
to sit down in the evening with a real oral type of situation
around the fire telling stories. They had already adopted a
different culture altogether!
(S.A./Z.M)
At the same time Mda does acknowledge the influence on his work of the oral
tradition. Raghunath poses the question: 'What about the influences of the Oral
Tradition? Do you find that seeps into your work?' He responds:
Well that would come in automatically - without even thinking
about it. Because you see orature generally, is very powerful,
and our modes of story-telling, whether we are conscious of it or
not, will involve that.
(S.A./Z.M)
85
Nevertheless Mda lists ashis early influences stories that hehad read (not heard)
during his school years. He isquite clear onwhere the inspiration came from to write
plays:
When itcomes tothe writing ofplays Iknow exactly who and
what influenced them. Itwas Gibson Kente ... Isaw aGibson
Kente play called Sikalo, which was being performed inMaseru.
Atthat stage Ivaguely remembered watching aperformance of
the very first play by Kente called Manana the Jazz Prophet, a
few years earlier, and itdidnot have any impact on me. When I
saw Sikalo ... Iwas fascinated bythe factthat itwas quite a
terrible play. ... Ienjoyed the music and dance and soon. But
even then, although Iwas stillinHigh School, Ithought that it
was atruly awful play. Ifeltthat Icould write something better.
Sothat's how Kente influenced me. He was soawful that I
thought Icould write something better.
(Naidoo, 1997, p.2)
Whilst Mda's early education was inSoweto, hishigh school years were spent atPeka
High School inLesotho studying for hisCambridge Overseas School Certificate. His
setworks would have included playscripts byWole Soyinka, Joe Orton, andHarold
Pinter, andthe inevitable Shakespeare. With this kind ofreading behind him one can
understand Mda's reaction to Kente's work and why itisthat his own plays are finely
structured works that are self-consciously observant ofthe tradition ofwestern
dramaturgy. Between 1973 and 1976Mda studied for aBFA (Visual Arts and
Literature) atthe International Academy of Arts andLetters, Zurich, Switzerland.
Then after teaching English atvarious high schools inLesotho hebecame the Lesotho
Cultural Mfairs Specialist atthe American Cultural Centre (USIA) inMaseru. Mda's
exposure as achild to areading environment athome, his 'British' influenced high
86
school education and his studies abroad (later he was to undertake an MA and MFA at
Ohio University, and he also holds a PhD from the University of Cape Town), lends
to his dramatic writing not only a fluency and an articulateness but an educated
English vocabulary.
Take for example the following expressions from one of his best known works, We
Shall Sing for the Fatherland:
'I always say, never be carried away by enthusiasm. Sit
down and enjoy the spoils.' (p.6)
'Was it for naught, Janabari?' (p.7)
'Let me nip down to the shop', 'nitwit' (p.8)
'I say, Jananbari ... " 'I've always known you to be a
diligent policeman.' (p.9)
'... you go to great lengths extolling the virtues of Ofisiri
... ', '... an upstart ofa trooper', "numbskulls' (p.IO)
'... some new-fangled disease.', 'since when has my
judgement been sought in our logistics?' (p.IS)
'... we don't take alms' (p.16)
'Phew' (p.17)
'... political gibberish?' (p.18)
'... marked by decorum.', 'Let bygones be bygones'
(p.19)
87
'... why the blazes ... ' (p.20)
'... to harbour two wretches.' (p.21)
' ... no time for recriminations' (p.22)
'... to buzz off ... " '... like a blooming warder ... ' (p.23)
' ... a bad precedent for my colleagues.', 'I looked for you
high and low.' (p.24)
' ... leave the poor wretches alone.', '... and all the
trimmings?' (p.25)
In other words, on every page we encounter idiomatic expressions and phrases that
create the impression of a latter day Oscar Wilde, without the aphorisms. On the
other hand we also discover local reference to 'the Mataliana shop' (the Italian owned
shop) and to 'mashangana polony' (polony made for Mrican or Shangaan tastes). On
page 9 Janabari says, 'It looks like beer, squo' (which is a truncation of sqombote or
beer). Here Mda puts the English first and then the vernacular word, which is
interesting, since in most black African dramatic works which feel a necessity to
repeat vernacular expressions in English, it is normal usage to provide the vernacular
first. On page 11 Sergeant refers to 'lishabo' (a mixture of tomato, onion and chillies).
Various other expressions that are drawn from the vernacular include: 'Eke', 'Lisatane
ting!', 'Hela ntatelBo ntate' , 'Ag', 'Khosto' , 'Aw'.
88
Mdathus usesthepower ofEnglish expression incombination with language and
dramatic elements drawn fromtheMrocentric paradigm ofperformance. What Mda
didnot admire inKente washisscript, butheconfesses that hehadenjoyed the dance
andmusical elements oftheperformance andheishappytoemploy these elements
where they areappropriate. Hauptfleisch substantiates this:
Zakes Mda's finely structured plays ... became compelling
theatre through theuseofperformance techniques inherited from
Mrican forms, including mime, dancing andsinging.'
(Hauptfleisch, 1997,p.129)
Theatre forResistance iswhere most commentators placethebulk ofMda's plays.
This, asMda himself points outinandinterview withRolf Solberg andpublished in
Alternative Theatre inSouth Mrica, isverydifferent fromProtest Theatre. Inthe
1960'sthetownship musicals were created ascommercial entertainment andalthough
theywere not, aswehaveseen above, entirely devoid ofsocio-political critique, their
primary objective wastoentertain rather thantoconscientise. TheProtest Theatre in
the 1970'sonthe other handwaspolitical intheliberal tradition, theworks bearing
witness toandprotesting against political andsocial injustice. Intothis category
would beplaced theplays ofAthol Fugard forexample. Theatre forResistance onthe
other handwas aby-product oftheBlack Consciousness movement and, asMda
points out,aninstrument fortheconscientization ofthemasses:
Theatre forResistance, ... wasquitedifferent from Protest
Theatre. Protest Theatre was akindoftheatre, which addressed
itselftotheoppressor, likeKing Kong, with aview, perhaps, to
making him seehowterrible hislawswere. Inotherwords itwas
mostly atheatre ofselfpityandatheatre ofmourning andof
89
weeping ... It showed how people were oppressed -itshowed
also the effect ofthat oppression onthe people, but only went as
far asthat. But when we came tothe phase ofthe Theatre for
Resistance, ... They created anew kind oftheatre, which no
longer aimed to address itself to the oppressor. Itaddressed itself
tothe oppressed, with aview to mobilizing the oppressed to fight
against oppression.
(Solberg, 1999, p.33)
The move from theatre ofwitness and lamentation tothe theatre ofmobilization was
not accompanied by amove from commercial interest to altruism. Mda seldom
produces his own work forthe formal conventional theatre andthe reason for this is
that itdoes not pay him sufficiently for himto doso. As ajournalist, dramatist,
novelist, and painter hefinds that directing istoo time-consuming. As he says inhis
interview with Raghunath:
... there isno money there and as afull-time writer who solely depends for his
living onwriting, one cannot afford to produce plays.
(S.A./Z.M)
Mda does not act either inhisown plays or inothers for the same reason:
Here in South African Iwon't dothat because itdoesn't pay ...
you seeto me, writing isaprofession. I'm not doing itjust for
fun.
(S.A./Z.M)
Given Mda's literary approach and 'tight' scripting one should be forgiven for
expecting the printed script tobe amore accurate record ofwhat was delivered in
90
performance, but Kruger reminds us that all performances are in fact interpretations
of texts when she cites Horn on Mda:
While the published text blames "white" interests for the
collusion between international Banker and local Businessman,
the stage text was amended to "multinational" and the punchline
added to the Banker's speech: "We must teach them that the only
colour that matters is the colour of money."
(Kruger, 1999, p.186)
Perhaps one of the most distinctive charactersitics ofMda's plays is his use of what
has come to be known as 'magic realism'. Although Mda claims not to have known of
the label 'magic realism' at the time of his writing this material, still less of being
influenced by Latin American magic realists (see his comments in the interview with
Rolf Solberg in Alternative Theatre in South Mrica p.p. 39-40), it is clear that in his
work the duality of the natural and supernatural is often collapsed. On the other hand,
this accords well with African thought. As John Kani points out, there are certain
basic notions in Mrican thought with regard to the dead, which include:
... the respect for the dead, because being dead is a passage to
becoming an ancestor, and an ancestor has an important role in
my everyday reality because he or she is the link between birth,
death and being an ancestor - the complete cycle of existence.
(S.A./J.K)
An interesting example is found in scene three of We Shall Sing for the Fatherland
where the character Ofisiri is discovered sitting on a rock supervising a gang of
91
prisoners (presented in silhouette) who are digging a grave. Two 'corpes' lie in sacks
nearby. Ofisiri bemoans the fact that the two characters Janabari and Sergeant froze
to death in the park that he had to patrol as 'a member of the respectable police force'.
Conveniently forgetting the bribe the two had to give him in order to remain in the
park, he claims that 'I warned the fools to buzz off and they wouldn't listen.'
For punishment he now has to sit and watch prisoners digging graves 'like a blooming
warder'. He would much rather be at another funeral at the national graveyard for Mr.
Mafutha the Mrican businessman of the post-colonial society who we meet earlier in
the play and who was in cahoots with the international Banker. We learn that Mr.
Mafutha is likely to have died of some 'new-fangled disease like gastric ulcers' from
eating too much expensive, rich food and drinking too much alcohol. The state
honours Mr. Mafutha at his funeral with a band and a gravesite in the national
graveyard. By comparison the two freedom fighters and patriots are forgotten by the
new society and are destined for unmarked graves. But their spirits live on. Mda's
treatment of 'ghosts' is not to treat them as 'ghosts' at all.
So, when Janabari and Sergeant-Major return to the scene of their own funeral they
are not presented in a special green light or coloured light, nor do they appear in
shrouds, or in a mist or in any other manner designed to signal to the audience their
'non-reality', for indeed the strict distinction between the dead and the living is not
recognised. 'The supernatural is taken for granted' as Mda puts it:
In other words, my characters interact with the supernatural
forces in their day-to day living - it's a natural thing to do. They
don't find the supernatural problematic.'
92
(Solberg, 1999, p.39)
2.7 Conclusion
Looking at the tendencies outlined above and thinking of where things may be
headed, it is interesting to note the views of the late Matsemela Manaka13 as quoted in
Schauffer's log:
Matsemela was unusually passionate in his expression when he
declared that nowadays the notion of protest or resistance is dead:
"Today the writing either refers to things past - and therefore of
no immediate concern, - or I mean to say, like to things present
that don't really display the courage of commitment."
(Schauffer Log.23/03/98 )
All people want is a good laugh or escapist entertainment of one kind or another.
Manaka adds:
At least Gibson had a little bit to say here and there between the
entertainment. Now it's: bring me the best from the west. Get
Michael Jackson, get Madonna, get whatever, - thank God at
least we can get this in a democratic South Africa and not feel
guilty about watching it - meanwhile what has really changed for
the masses? Where has the protest gone in theatre against social
inequality?
(Schauffer Log.23/03/98 )
93
AsManaka and others have pointed out intheir interviews, ifyou question the ethics,
the efficiency or the integrity ofthe present ANC government orits representatives,
you run the risk ofbeing considered reactionary. Manaka felt that democracy was not
areality inthe new social dispensation ofapost-apartheid South Africa (see
Appendix 4).
Perhaps itisnot possible to create ameaningful overview ofthe work ofBlack
African dramatists in South Africa because the work ofsuch dramatists, published or
unpublished, isonly slightly more than one century old. Ofthis the bulk ofmaterial
dates from the 70's onwards. This means that asaresearcher, one isfaced with the
daunting task ofcreating an honest overview based upon, atmost, athirty-year record.
One could argue that earlier material provides intimations ofdevelopment and the tap-
root oftrends that carne to later fruition, but within the delimitation's ofthe scope of
this thesis and within the delimitation's imposed bythe defined use ofterms, the
problem remains. John Kani recalls that heread somewhere ofan answer Mao
Tsetung gave tothe question: 'What doyou think was the effect ofthe French
Revolution?' He isreported to have replied: 'Itisstilltoo soontotell.' ( Schauffer .
Log .31/05/96 ).
Inthe light ofthis we have perhaps to ask whether ornotthe attempt here to provide
anoverview of anything asrecent asblack African dramatists work South ofthe
Zambezi isnot somewhat naIve or even presumptuous? Ifone examines the content
ofcontemporary young black African dramatists who have presented their work atthe
Windybrow Festival or atthe Market Theatre Laboratory (both inJohannesburg) one
94
could conclude that the current tendency is to move away from politics and to move
towards social issues in black Theatre in South Africa. 14 What is interesting however
is the fact that the focus upon non-delivery, promised or anticipated social reforms,
and the focus upon issues of social relevance to black communities in South Mrica,
presupposes a black Mrican target audience.
One could then frame a history of South Mrican Theatre in terms of the implicit
target audience, with productions such as King Kong designed to appeal to white
audiences, Gibson Kente's township musicals appealing to black township audiences,
Zakes Mda and Matsemela Manaka appealing to intellectual audiences of all kinds,
etc and now a new breed of writers that seem to regard their audience as the growing
middle class of black urban society. The accuracy ofthis reading of the present
situation is bedeviled by the fact this overview entirely disregards the undeniable shift
towards Community Theatre. Perhaps I should accept that it is still indeed 'too soon
to tell'.
To return finally to Hauptfleisch's framework of four basic traditions, i.e. spoken
Eurocentric drama, western-style indigenous theatre, crossover workshop theatre and
traditional indigenous performance forms. Gcina Mhlophe in Have you seen Zandile
incorporates storytelling devices which derive from traditional indigenous
performance forms, but she also creates a script and presents the work in formal as
well as informal performance spaces. To a degree then she has also been influenced
by the tradition of spoken English drama, and in presentational terms this sometimes
falls within the rubric of western-style indigenous theatre. In fact if we examine any
of the works mentioned here we could trace elements of all four traditions in each
95
work. Itissimply aquestion ofemphasis. In similar fashion, Gibson Kente employs
westernized, urbanized indigenous forms, some workshop theatre influences as
well as some formal spoken drama elements. Zakes Mda appears to come close to
Hauptfleisch's spoken eurocentric drama, though again combined with western-style
indigenous theatre, while Matsamela Manaka uses crossover techniques inpursuit of
an Afrocentric vision. Thus, whilst Hauptfleisch's suggestion offour basic traditions
canbe seen to provide auseful basic matrix when looking atthe work ofblack
African dramatists in South Africa, itissignificant that, on present evidence, no
work seems to fall neatly into anyone exclusive tradition. The cross-fertilization that
Hauptfleisch himself refers to actually precludes this. The vitality ofblack African
dramatists can be ascribed inpart then totheir eclecticism, acapacity to integrate
traditional performance elements with imported eurocentric influences and traditions
to create exciting new forms suitably reflective ofthe rainbow nation.
ENDNOTES TO CHAPTER TWO :SOUTH AFRICA.
1 For adetailed discussion and presentation ofdebate on this and other related issues Sienart, E.
Bell. and N. Lewis, 1991 (Oral Traditions and Innovations: New Wines in Old Bottles?)
2 See Mild Flockemann (1991, pp. 20-52), for adiscussion ofan example ofa student
presentation ofZandile in acramped lecture theatre onthe campus ofthe University of the
Western Cape. The adaptability of this kind ofwork issimilar towhat we can deduce from the
well-known RRe documentary on Woza Albert! which shows the famous opening
'orchestral' sequence as presented on theLondon stage with side lighting, top lighting, and fill
96
lighting in a black box set. Later it cuts to another sequence but this time we find ourselves in
a township hall in Soweto with the performance presented on a slightly raised platform in a
flat auditorium under non-dimmable bare light bulbs that provided general illumination for
both the stage and the auditorium simultaneously. Skilful direction of the documentary
ensured that we the viewers were provided with cut-aways to the lively audience participation
in the Soweto production but of course no sedate audience reaction was shown for the London
production.
4 Kente denies that Mbongeni Ngema pursues his tradition of theatre. In an interview with
Rolf Solberg he replies:
No, I think diametrically opposite is the case, much as he is my
protege. Mbongeni aspired to find his own identity along the way.
But I think unfortunately, he tackled that in a rather shabby way,
because he was against anything that I taught ... For instance, at
one stage he tried to make people speak English like they were
speaking Zulu. Stick to Zulu then if you want ... the bloody thing to
be Zulu ... But I think there was a drive to give up on Gibson Kente
in order to have his own identity.
(Solberg, R.: 1999, p. 87)
5 Kavanagh notes tllat: 'The script is not, in fact, Harry Bloom's work. It had been evolved by
an all-white team of writers in Clive Mendell's studio. This they did without apparently
consulting black writers ... ' (Kavanagh, 1985, pp. 101-102)
6 Copy in Schauffer's collection marked SA/GK/US.
7 Afrikaans was associated inevitably, though perhaps a little unfairly, with the language of
oppressors. The dangers of such generalisation were exposed in the various debates on culture
97
that led up to the first democratic election. It was pointed out that Mrikaans is also the
language of protest in the works of Adam Small, the Cape Flats Players, Karel Schoeman,
Bartho Smit, Andre Brink, Hennie Aucamp, Pieter Fourie, Deon Opperman, and many others.
It was indeed much more widely used than only by supporters of the Nationalist Party, and
was not limited to white speakers only. In fact Afrikaans was also (and still is) the first
language of many many Black Africans.
8 The term 'Kaffir' was a term used in a denigrating way in everyday common usage in South
Africa. There is remarkable irony in this because the term is derived form the Arabic 'Caffre'
and it was a term which was applied to non-Islamic peoples and it meant 'non-believer' Given
that all the white Prime Ministers of South Africa were Christian this would have made them
all 'Kaffirs' in the strict meaning of the term.
9 This is not strictly true, as drama departments at Universities have presented this play. What
Kruger is referring to here is to professional productions in State Regional or commercial
theatres.
10 See - Mda. Z,: 1993b When People Play People London, Zed Books
12 I am not entirely sure that I agree with Steadman's definition of 'black' but am not in a position
at this time to improve upon it.
13 Matsemela Manaka was killed in a car crash in July 1998.
14 One could justify this claim by pointing out that within the last five years Sello KaNube has
written on gangsterism in the townships in K'oze Kuse. Obed Baloyi critiques the non-
delivery on promises made by political parties. Paul Grootboom's play Enigma explores the
plight of AIDS patients. Emily Tseu in The Rain deals with what women really expect from a
relationship rather than what men expect them to want. Thulani Mtshali in Weemen seeks to
examine the oppressive nature of black patriarchy, Magi Williams in Kwa-Landlady draws
98
attention to the exploitation of female illegal immigrants, Boy Bangala in Brothers in Arts
looks at family relationships, parental attitudes and the aspirations of a new generation of
Black youth. Marapodi Mapalakanye in The Harvesting Season looks at the dissatisfaction
and disappointment of returning exiles and returning former freedom fighters when they
discover that the new society does not appear to recognise their contribution to the struggle for
freedom and now seems to ignore such contribution through self-sacrifice. (For all these
contemporary references see Rangoajane F., unpublished research for a proposed thesis,
Black Theatre in Post Apartheid South Africa, UDW)
99
CHAPTER THREE
Botswana
From the townships like Katatura inNamibia to the crowded
supermarkets near the taxi ranks inMaseru, Lesotho, the sight of
a late middle-aged white man and atwenty one-year-old Indian
research assistant caused many curious glances. Such curiosity
came across to me as tinged with an incredulity bordering upon
suspicion and mistrust. Not so in Botswana.
(DS/L)
In his researcher's logbook Schauffer goes on to explain that in his opinion in
Botswana it wasn't so much that people were more tolerant necessarily but that
Botswana had in the past accepted as immigrants white and Indian dissidents and
refugees from South Africa. They might have felt less threatened by representatives
of minorities that were so small in number inthat society as to be politically
irrelevant. It may on the other hand be due to the fact that the Batswana (a collective
name of citizens in Botswana) have enjoyed a long and relatively stable period of
independence. The 2000 Official SADC Trade, Industry and Investment Review
(listed as SADC 2000 Review in references below), also notes that prior to
independence in 1966 there was an absence of a 'significant indigenous national
100
movement ... and strong allegiances among the country's eight principal tribal
groups.' (Saunders C.inSADC 2000 Review p.203).
Linda vanBuren, writing inthe same review makes the point that atindependence in
1966Botswana was one ofthe 20poorest countries inthe world. 'During the 1980's,
however, Botswana's economic performance exceeded that ofallother non-
petroleum-producing countries inAfrica. (Van Buren, SADC 2000 Review. p.207).
This gave Botswana one ofthe world's highest growth rates between 1990-1997. The
main reason forthis remarkable turnaround wasthe discovery ofdiamonds. In
addition asubstantial number ofBatswana are employed inSouth Africa. The
number isestimated byMcGregor Hutchinson (SADC 2000 Review ,p.203) tobe at
least 50,000. This hasthe dual effect ofeasing the pressure ondomestic resources on
the one hand, and contributing tothe countries foreign earnings through workers
sending money home totheir families from South Africa onthe other. Ahigh fertility
rate, according toLinda vanBuren (SADC 2000 Review. p.211), will ensure that the
country's population will double between 1995-2050 despite the factthat ofthe 29of
the 34developing countries accounting for 91%ofallAIDS deaths world-wide,
Botswana was the worst with one inevery four adults affected. With arapid
population growth alarge proportion ofthe population according toHutchinson
(op.cit. p.203) isless than 15years ofage. Thisputs enormous pressure onthe
economy to provide education andjobs forthe growing number ofyoung people. Itis
hardly surprising therefore, given the above, that donor-driven community theatre has
developed sorapidly inBotswana andinthe sub-continent asawhole. (See Chapter
1)
101
Theatre in Botswana
Like other colonial territories inthe African sub-continent, Bechuanaland, (Botswana)
attracted anumber of expatriate British subjects to the region. Wherever sufficient
numbers of such expatriates collected, social clubs, sporting clubs, and in many cases
amateur dramatic societies were set up, replicating in organisational infrastructure and
purpose, the kinds of clubs and societies such expatriates had been part of at 'home'.
In Gabarone one such group was the Capital Players. This was atypical expatriate
amateur theatre group. From documents inthe Botswana Collection ofthe Botswana
National Library (BP 792.0222) Schauffer was able to piece together a short history
ofthis group. What is significant to note inthe context ofthis thesis isthe fact that all
ofthe work presented was Eurocentric with an average offour productions or more a
year ranging from Noel Coward to Shakespeare; from revue to pantomime. Schools
Drama Festivals were also arranged. The programme of Sinbad the Sailor, presented
inthe Gabarone Town Hall On17/18/19 December 1970 also reveals that two ofthe
principal performers were persons of colour, together with four inthe chorus and no
less than twelve Batswanan children. Still heavily dominated by white proponents of
the amateur theatrical tradition, agrowing number oflocal Batswanans were yearly
being clearly being introduced to this theatrical paradigm through their participation
in such works as well as community theatre productions (see Chapter 7). Similar
102
groups would have existed in most of the former colonies and such groups often set
up venues such as the Swaziland Theatre Club in Mbabane which sported theatre
lighting equipment, rudimentary sound systems, some curtaining, perhaps a
cyclorama, dimming facilities etc.
In contrast to the so-called 'white' theatre groups, made up predominantly - though
not exclusively -, of white expatriates, however, what one might call black
community theatre groups were operating mainly without access to the kind of
presentational facilities required for western type theatre production. 'Community
Theatre' appears to be a modern label for a much earlier form of theatre known in the
70's and 80's as 'Popular Theatre', and will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter
7. What can be said however, is that by 1983 the Botswanan Government considered
community theatre important enough to send the Minister of Sports and Culture in the
Ministry of Home Affairs, a Mr. E.P. (Leppe) Kelepile, to Koitta in Dhaka,
Bangladesh to attend the International Workshop on Popular Theatre (Feb 4 _16th
1983. His report still exists in the National Reference Library (9433), where the 58
participants from 19 countries (the majority from Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean) in
essence recommended at the conclusion of this workshop, bears a striking
resemblance to the aims and objectives ofthe newly established Southern Mrican
Theatre Initiative (SATI) that was formalized at a conference inMaseru in June 2000.
(See Chapter 7.)
Of specific interest to us here however, is a separate category of playmaking, namely
the work of the Universities and of lecturers teaching drama and theatre studies, and
more specifically dramatists writing formal texts for the theatre. Whilst playscripts
103
__________ J
are obviously also generated by community theatre groups, such scripts are, by very
nature of the methodology of community theatre, of communal authorship and often
even undocumented, although in some instances individuals claim authorship (see
chapter 4 on Namibia).
Fani-Kayode Osazuwa Omoregie
In contrast dramatists that work as independent authors are few and far between in the
sub-continent, outside of South Africa. One such in Botswana is Dr. Fani-Kayode
Osazuwa Omoregie, a Nigerian born lecturer in English and Drama at the University
of Botswana. He has written thirteen plays, eight of which are amongst the material
collected by Schauffer, but all of this was written whilst Omoregie was a lecturer in
Theatre Arts at the University of Zimbabwe. Using third year students in the casts
four short public seasons were presented:
Hallucinations in the Alfred Beit Hall, Univ. Zimbabwe 4 -6 Sept. 1993
The Mother of all Dinners (Shingirirai) in the Reps Theatre, Harare, 27 -30 May 1996
Foreign Affairs Gweru Theatre, Gweru, 20 -27 June 1997
Foreign Affairs Township Square Cultural Centre, Bulawayo, 18/19 July 1997
Since taking up his present post at the University of Botswana Dr. Omoregie has
formed a theatre group called Enigma. He also works with Travelling Theatre, a
group of student performers that is funded by the University of Botswana as part of its
community service programme. (BIDr. 0)
104
Since October 1997 Omoregie's work has changed fundamentally. Whereas the
Zimbabwean work was allEnglish and in a satirical social-realist style calling for
blackout facilities and realist stage settings, realist dialogue, etc., now his technique
has shifted to the use of as many languages as possible. In an interview with
Schauffer he explained:
... my characters are made to speak many languages so you
cannot locate the plays in any particular place. I do not believe in
the concept of ethnicity. I have traveled widely and always
believe I belong to whatever society I find myself. That is what I
want my characters to reflect - people who have been to places
and felt at home In those places ... in most of my plays now,
there are characters that speak in Malawian language. Shona,
French, German, Spanish, Setswana, Zambian language and so
on.
(B/Dr. 0)
Given the fact that the University of Botswana has no suitable theatre space and that
there is awell-established community theatre movement (as mentioned above, and
discussed in Chapter 7), it is hardly surprising that such a fundamental shift in
approach has occurred.
In the eight unpublished scripts on hand that date from October 1997 there is not a
single song or any form of dance or stylised movement sequence of any kind, now
music and dance are very much part of his present output.
105
I try to domesticate the plays by using a lot of the art forms of the
country I am currently based at the time of writing. For instance,
the dominant art form in Botswana incorporates dance and a lot
of singing. The one thing that is very apparent in most of the
plays that I've done here is the singing and dancing.
(BIDr. 0)
Here then is a good example ofa dramatist schooled in the traditions of Western
dramaturgy, moving towards a new Mrocentric paradigm in his work - or is this
actually the case? In the final chapter I will return to this question. As there is no
record of Omoregie's current work all that can be suggested is that a follow-up study
be conducted to track this talented and insightful dramatists work. What can be said
of the material collected to date is that it reveals a dramatist who is prepared to tackle
subject matter that is potentially contentious.
The play Infidel is a case in point. Here Omoregie offers a critique ofIslamic
fundamentalism. The wry comic tone of all of his works makes a journey into this
material all the more hazardous. The central figure is Ali Rasheed and in scene one,
which is in the living room of the Rasheed's, Ali is discovered sitting at the dining
table going through his account books. He is described as a 'small, slim, bearded, a
small white skull cap on his head, wearing a cream Moslem-like shirt and trousers.'
The room is 'tastefully decorated with Islamic paraphernalia all over the place'.
Whilst one could be forgiven for believing that stereotype is what is being exploited
here, the dialogue moves swiftly and Omoregie wastes no time in introducing us to
the kind of prejudice that is the quarry of the humour.
106
The opening exchange between Ali and his tall, fat, pretty wife Shirley runs as
follows:
Ali: (he snorts) Not good but not bad. (Shirley looks at him with
annoyance. Ali turns apage of his ledger, again snorts and nods
his head in satisfaction). Not bad at all. (He snorts again).
Shirley: (slightly behind Ali) Could you please stop snorting like
apig?
Given the 'Islamic' setting the use ofthe word 'pig' is calculated. The confrontation of
opposing viewpoints between Ali and Shirley isthus swiftly established. In the next
few lines we learn that Ali is happy that his business is doing well, but Shirley points
out that his current business has only existed for three months and that the two
previous businesses have 'crumbled'. Ali claims that they failed because he hired
'infidels' (Christians). Later inthe play it is revealed that Ali cannot comprehend
anything more complex than simple mathematical concepts.
From the outset Ali attempts to assert himself as a male dominant figure but his
chauvinism is challenged at every turn:
Ali: ... I'm happy because I'm blessed with a son, who listens to
me. (He snorts) And awife, you, Shirley Rasheed. That's why
I'm happy because I'm a man.
Shirley: You call yourself a man?
Ali: Ahappy man, Shirley Rasheed. I've every right to be aman.
After allthe first animal Allah created was a man.
107
Shirley: I'm glad you said animal.
Ali: What do you mean by that Shirley Rasheed?
Shirley: I mean that Allah created a man first is his business, but
that he put more sense in my little finger than in your big, fat
head is not my fault. (She exists to the kitchen)
Challenges to Ali's position as head of what he regards as an Islamic family come
thick and fast. A young neighbour Zachariah, calls to invite Shirley to an apostolic
fellowship meeting. Ali throws him out unceremoniously. He feels insulted that
Zachariah did not 'respect the fact that as Moslems we are not interested in attending
apostolic fellowships.' As the man of the house he feels justified in answering for
Shirley. The next exchange is with a Tutor who has called on the neighbour Mr.
Kupe. Mr. Kupe is not in and the Rasheed's door is open. Zachariah knocks and
enters the Rasheed home with the Tutor. Ali treats them rudely assuming that they
are both Brothers in the Apostolic Church. His attitude changes dramatically when
the Tutor introduces himself as Habib.
Ali: (nicely) Oh! Why didn't you say you were Moslem when you came in?
It turns out however that the tutor's full name is Habib Aaron-Mohammed. His father
was Moslem, his mother was Christian and he is a Free Thinker. The neighbour Mr.
Kupe is a Catholic. To Ali he is an infidel but to Kupe, Zachariah is an infidel. Ali's
son Mousa ends up going to 'their' University much against his father's will at the
outset instead of coming into Ali's business. Ali's attitude is summed up in the line:
108
'One page of the Koran is worth more than a hundred things they will teach him in
their University'.
Ali's sister Audrey is completely non-conformist and is dressed in a red mini-dress.
She has had four husbands to date. All of the above is explored in scene one in swift
exchanges of dialogue. There is a time lapse between scene one and scene two.
Mousa is now studying for his Cambridge exams and Ali's attitude towards his son's
academic work has changed. In a comic turnabout Ali now says that:
... you won't find a more intelligent head than Mousa's. He is my son
remember?
Mousa asks Ali to help him do some revision. Ali picks up Mousa's book:
Ali: ... What is this? What kind of language s this?
Shirley: What's the matter Ali?
Ali: (he turns to Mousa) What kind of rubbish are they stuffing
into your head? What shit is this?
Mousa: It's algebra dad.
Ali can't cope with this but the Tutor is also teaching Mousa about a great deal more
than Algebra. Their conversation includes reference to vasectomy, contraception of
all kinds, and obliquely to homosexuality. The humour in this scene turns on the
references made in the Tutor's examples of English grammar to bacon, pork and
swme.
109
Scene three is set several years later Ali and Shirley have aged. Ali is still at his
ledger complaining that the new bookkeeper (a Moslem) has been stealing from him.
Shirley asks Ali to go through the Ledger again in case he overlooked something. He
is insistent that he could not have overlooked anything. In a neat role reversal Shirley
agrees to go through the ledger if Ali will hang the curtains. Inevitably she finds a
mistake in his calculations. It appears that Shirley has been to evening school. The
new curtains have been hung to prepare for a visit from Mousa who is now a medical
doctor living in Egypt. After a petty dispute over garbage cans with Kupe, the
neighbour and a return visit form Audrey (wearing heavy make-up and a skintight
pink mini-dress). She is nearly fifty but is off to meet her new boyfriend, Rakim. She
has decided to marry him because:
Audrey: He has money. Lot's of money. He has two houses in ...
Mousa arrives home. He now has a thriving medical practice in Cairo and works with
a partner Simon Matthews -who is a Seventh-Day Adventist. He also drops a
bombshell when he announces that he is already three months married to Maria who
smokes, drinks wine and who is the sister of Simon Matthews. Ali wants to disown
his son. Mousa confronts his father and calls him abigot.
Mousa: A bigot. You're not aMoslem at all. You're simply
using Islam as aweapon, a weapon of hatred. You're using the
religion to further your own petty prejudices and grievances ..
In the altercation that follows Mousa asks his father the awkward question, 'When
was the last time you were inside a mosque?' and later he forces Ali to confront the
110
possibility that the businesses have failed not because of infidels that he hired but
because he was a bad businessman. All of this is hard-hitting confrontational
dialogue and the logical ending arrives with the final moments described as follows:
Mousa and Maria exit. Ali stand staring fixedly at the door.
Shirley who has dashed to the door, gently sinks to the floor,
back to the door. Lights slowly fade out.
This melodramatic ending is problematic because despite the seriousness of the
critique of bigotry which is central to the play, the style of writing right up to the final
section is comic, with the usual comic devices of the running joke, expectation and so
on. But the tone changes from Ali's bitter line,
Ali: (roaring) get the hell out of my house and take your infidel wife with you
now!
It almost seems as though we have switched to a different play altogether; as though
we have moved from comedy to melodrama. Omoregie also seems to be troubled by
this ending because he offers an alternative ending in which Ali relents saying:
Ali: I never thought he would have the nerve to speak to me like that, but he
spoke the truth ...
Whilst this may provide a less melodramatic ending in which Ali finally gains stature
through accepting criticism from his son, and there is a happy ending presaged, the
dramatic change in Ali is extraordinarily sudden and it does not seem to flow
111
naturally from the dramatic action immediately preceding this ending. The ending
then remains problematic.
There are moments in Infidel that recall the kind of comic dialogue in Chekhov's The
Bear and Omoregie employs this style to good effect in A Simple Twist of Fate which
is adaptation of Gogol's The Government Inspector set in a regional town in an
unspecified region of west Mrica. The adaptation works well as the issue of
corruption, bribery and nepotism in the civil service are universal.
The exploitation of farm labourers and the land issue is tackled in For Whom Things
Do Not Change. The hypocrisy encountered in many funerals and imbedded in
church services for the dead is explored in Ashes to Ashes and in Hallucinations.
Omoregie deals with two freedom fighters who are rejected and neglected by the new
society (rather like the two freedom fighter in Mda's And We Shall Sing for the
Fatherland) or the present day politicians? The honesty of some of the custom
officials and the dishonesty of others is the opening gambit of Foreign Affairs but the
bulk of the play deals with prevailing attitudes and prejudices towards foreign
doctors. Omoregie's penchant for farce comes to fore in Double Take, a one-act play
set in a film directors office. This is the sort of material that Rex Garner would direct
well. Finally The Mother of All Dinners (Shingirirai) is another farce about two
friends who cannot pay their rent and who arrange a dinner to impress their boss so
that they can get promotions.
In all of these plays Omoregie calls for realist settings and theatre lighting. In the
last-mentioned play The Mother of All Dinners for example there is a sequence which
112
takes place in the dark when the lights trip out. The play is therefore written with a
formal western theatre space in mind as a performance venue; a space in which a
blackout can be arranged.
As pointed out above, there are in Botswana several well-established community
theatre groups or organisations, and it will be most interesting to see how Omoregie's
work might change to meet the demands of community theatre and the theatre for
development conditions which prevail in the region.
Community Theatre In Botswana
Before moving on to the next country, it may be valuable to give some sense of
community theatre activity in the region. Schauffer records a visit to Ghetto Artists in
Francistown, a group working very much in the manner described by Schauffer (as
detailed in Chapter 7). Another group in Gabarone is the Gareng-ga-Dithaba Theatre
Group. The spokesman for this group, Kellen Seretse, is a playwright who is part of
the Mambo Arts Commune. His play Hunger and Frustrations was the product of a
workshopping process. The children's rights theme was chosen because the play was
created to be part of the National Programme ofActionfor Children. In a review by
the journalist Raheem Hosseini mention is made of effective
'... blending and contrasting of traditional community values as a
backdrop to the main child rights theme. He did this through
dress, through proverbs, and traditional songs referring to
"Badimo" (our actors), and background music and drums.'
113
(Copy of review dated June 1997 in the Schauffer collection) 1
Gareng-ga-Dithaba also use playscripts written in Setswana. So for example at the
Maitisong Cultural Festival in 1996 they presented L.D. Raditladi's epic Motswasele
II. This drama outlines the history of the Bakwena. It is the story of the power
struggle between Motswasele and Moruakgomo within Bakwena's royal house.
Because it was a fifth form setwork the play toured nationally to senior secondary
schools.
Undoubtedly the largest and most established community theatre group in Botswana
is Reetsanang. The following information concerning this organisation is drawn from
Schauffer's interview with former national coordinator, James Chitakuta: Founded in
1986 the Reetsanang Association/or Community Drama Groups (to give the
organisation its full title) today has a membership of about 2500 theatre artists
operating in various communities throughout the country. Chitakuta also coordinates
the Reetsanang Southern African Regional Cultural Exchange Programme that has
similar aims and objectives to those of the newly established Southern African
Theatre Initiative (SATI). Both seek to establish a network of community theatre
organisations in order to promote exchange of cultural activities, the sharing of ideas,
the development of human skills and expertise, and to provide a forum for discussion
of common problems and issues of concern.
To begin with Reetsanang was an organisation for young people who were interested
in drama and theatre and who wanted to continue their involvement in the field after
finishing school. After interaction with other theatre groups and cultural workers
114
from other countries2, the organisation was restructured in 1989 in order to provide a
permanent home, a secretariat and professional executive staff, and physical resources
that would enable it to coordinate theatre activities in the country. Funding has come
from CIDA, a Swedish agency, HlVUS from the Netherlands, Norwegian Church Aid,
from Germany and from the American Embassy. In addition Reetsanang is supported
by the Botswana government through the Minister of Labour and Home Affairs,
which houses the Dept. of Youth and Culture, as well as through the Botswana
National Cultural Council. The way this works is for the official functions to include
funded performances by theatre or drama groups. The use of theatre as a tool for
social intervention and community development is well established in Botswana.
Reetsanang works closely with the Akanani Rural Development Association and with
Accord that involve theatre in their community outreach programmes. It has also
established links with organisations such as the Zimbabwe Association o/Community
Theatre, and many others in Zimbabwe, with Bricks Community Theatre in
Windhoek, Namibia, and with popular theatre alliances in Zambia, Tanzania and
Mozambique.
Video recordings have played an important part in securing funding from abroad. As
Chitakuta points out:
'This is one of the ways to sell yourself and mobili se more resources.'
(B/SC)
One of the aims of Reetsanang is to develop a professional theatre in Botswana and to
develop skills, which could enable performers to engage in professional work. This
115
raises the thorny issue of the tension between 'professional' community theatre work
and 'professional' theatre in the western sense of 'establishment theatre'. This issue
will be discussed further in Chapter Seven where views of Chitakuta on this issue are
examined in greater detail. Botswana as a region can call upon the literary talents of
writers such as Omoregie, the commitment to community service of Chitakuta and
many others, and the support of central Government for the promotion of theatre. On
the surface then it would appear that theatrical development in Botswana seems set to
blossom. One area of concern however is the lack of unity amongst theatre
practitioners themselves. Chitakuta was very aware of this, as was Vuyisele Otukile
(V.Otukile, 31/05/2000), while Chitakuta recognises the need for theatre practitioners
of all kinds to come togetherso that they speak with one voice when they speak to the
government.
Reetsanang can only represent community theatre groups. Other practitioners do not
want to involve themselves in community theatre and they also need to be
accommodated with the framework of the developing national arts policy. Without
some form of union the government does not know who to talk to. The need then is
for such a union to recognise the diversity of approaches to theatre but in doing so to
acknowledge a parallel need to promote at least a degree of consensus amongst
theatre practitioners in negotiation with the government. According to Chitakuta
there is a growing general appreciation of the need for a Union to be accomodated
within this.
Theatre in Botswana is at an exciting stage in its development and the events of the
next few years need monitoring closely as the impact of the building of a National
116
Theatre, the establishment of aUnion, the setting up of SATI, the expansion of
National television services, and the relative stability of the economy all point
towards rich opportunities for theatre practitioners inthe country.
The socio-political milieu in Botswana has produced athriving community theatre
that has produced abody of scripted material, mainly of communal authorship, for
use in many cases as indirect back-up for fundraising from international donors.
Much more research is needed however inthis fast-developing part of the sub-
continent before meaningful conclusions can be drawn. In terms of quadulation of
material in order to arrive at meaningful conclusions, the pilot study reveals that
scripts do exist in categories of what Hauptfleisch would refer to as 'spoken
Eurocentric drama' and in 'crossover workshop theatre " but further research is
needed to determine how much 'western-style indigenous theatre' there may be and
the exact nature ofthe contribution of' traditional indigenous performance forms I to
community theatre inBotswana.
The unique socio-political background thus seems set to produce exciting new
developments inthe near future. Inthe interim more extensive interviewing needs to
take place with awider range oftheatre practitioners and with academics, particularly
atthe University ofBotswana .
END NOTES TO CHAPTER THREE: BOTSWANA
1 Details obtainedfromapresscuttingfromTheReporter,Vol. 13.No. 11,22-28 March 1996.
(photocopy in Schauffercollection).
2 Reetsanang hasworkedcloselywiththeMarket TheatreLaboratory andwith Theatrefor
Africa, forexample.
117
CHAPTER FOUR
Namibia
According to the SADC Trade, Industry and Investment Review 2000, Namibia isone
ofAfrica's three most sparsely populated countries with an average population density
of 1.7people per sq. km. About 27% ofthe population live inurban areas. Whilst
English isthe official language, Afrikaans, Oshivambo, German, Herero,
NamaJDamara, Lozi, Kivangali and Tswana arethe national languages. There are
however aplethora ofdialectal variations (seeNorman Job inNINS.) South West
Africa (SWA), asthe territory was called atthe time, was declared aGerman
protectorate in 1884. When the First World War broke out South African forces
occupied the country and after the war the League ofNations awarded South Africa a
mandate to administer the territory. In 1920, South Africa was granted aCclass
mandate bythe League ofNations to administer Namibia. In 1945, the newly formed
United Nations declared South West Africa atrust territory with the right of self-
determination. Attempts by South Africa to annex the territory were refused. White
voters were granted representation inthe South African parliament in 1949. The
dispute concerning governance went tothe International Court ofJustice and this
ruled that South Africa was not competent to alter the legal status ofthe territory
unilaterally. In 1966the General Assembly voted toterminate South Africa's
mandate and in 1968 itresolved to rename the country Namibia. Because of South
Africa's refusal to compromise and to negotiate atrusteeship with the United Nations,
aninternational campaign was launched to secure democratic rule inNamibia -inline
with United Nations resolution 435. After many delays Namibia finally achieved
118
independence on the 21 March 1990 under a constitution based upon multi-party
democracy. During this complex struggle for political self-determination, organised
political resistance to South African administration started with the formation in 1957
of the Ovamboland People's Congress, which eventually became known as the South
West Africa people's Organisation or SWAPO. The present president Sam Nujoma
was one of the leaders of this organisation. It is not the intention here to chart the
complex history of the Democratic Turnhalle Alliance, the alleged human rights
abuses of the South African Territorial Force (SWATF) the issue of the Cuban troops
in Angola and how this impacted on negotiations for Namibian independence, the
central role in all of this of the People1s Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN), the
attempts to set up a Multi-Party Conference (MPC) and the eventual deployment of a
United Nations Transition Assistance Group (UNTAG) to monitor the South African
withdrawal and to supervise elections. Suffice to say that the protracted conflict
produced human rights abuses on both sides of the political divide and this has
provided rich material for theatre groups and dramatists in contemporary Namibia.
Schauffer notes in his journal that the name Groth was mentioned in discussions with
a number of theatre practitioners including Vickson Hangula and Frederick Philander
(N/VH and NIFP respectively). He does not comment further but Christopher
Saunders tells us:
In March 1996 the publication of Namibia: The wall of Silence, a
book by German Pastor Siegfried Groth, a former SWAPO
supporter, describing the detention and torture of people by the
organisation during the 1980's, caused much controversy ...
SWAPO subsequently published a book, entitled Their Blood
Waters our Freedom, listing about 8000 SWAPO supporters who
had died during the war.
119
(Saunders: In SADC Review, 2000, p. 777)
Another statistic which is significant is that by 1999 an estimated 150 000 of
Namibia's population of some 1.7 million were infected with the mv virus.
Community theatre groups have in consequence been able to secure donor funding
from foreign Embassies and from the Namibian Ministry of Health and Social
Services to mount AIDS awareness programmes targeting both urban and rural
communities. Another factor that accounts for the growth of community theatre
activity is the unemployment situation and the serious concern as to how jobs will be
found for recent school-Ieavers. Donald Sparks claims that at the end of the 1990's
unemployment stood at 38% (op. cit).
Under South Mrican administration a National Theatre was built and this was
administered by the South West African Performing Arts Council (SWAPAC). From
Schauffer's log comes the following extract:
Wandering through the backstage corridors you encounter old
posters from productions presented prior to 1990. There are
works in Afrikaans, classical western musical ensembles, touring
productions from CAPAB1 and PACT".
In other words the old SWAPAC catered for the cultural needs of the white group in
that society who were mainly centred in Windhoek, which remains the administrative,
legislative and judicial centre for the Government of Namibia. It also has the largest
number of inhabitants of any city or town in Namibia. Since independence the
120
National Theatre ofNamibia (NTN) has made some headway in the provision of
community outreach programmes and in the encouragement of community theatre and
theatre for development. Not everyone is satisfied with the rate of transformation
however.
4.1 Freddy Philander
Perhaps the most outspoken critic of the National Theatre ofNamibia's efforts is
Freddie Philander. Schauffer's log records an amusing description of Philander:
Freddie Philander is truly a larger-than-life figure that is the sort
of person who delights in calling a spade a shovel. He is a big
man who speaks his mind. He is humorous, incorrigible,
incisive, loud, keenly sensitive to the sufferings of the common
man in his society, and boldly, honestly, exuberantly vulgar- a
Rabelaisian reincarnation in Cape Coloured form who is not
prepared to take shit from anyone. He attacks incompetence, lack
of delivery, nepotism, hypocrisy, and all forms of corruption in
the SWAPO government with as much passion, vigour and guts
as he displayed in his criticisms of the Apartheid order.
Politically correct? ... se voet in 'n visblik!
In an interview with Schauffer (N/FP) he says with typical boldness:
I'd also like to say something ... about this National Theatre - it
doesn't serve its mission. We are abstaining from them. There is
a problem there; our expectations have not been met. A lot is
happening there that is causing frustration amongst the artists and
writers in this country. There is a great dissatisfaction with the
121
way things are being runthere atthe moment. It creates limited
opportunities for certain people with the result that there are
people there who ... shouldn't be running theatre ... They bring
inthe French. They stay for amonth. They go. Then the actors
are left. It's not anongoing consistent programme of
development. It makes amockery oftheatre.
(NIFP)
Atthis point aword ofexplanation seems appropriate. Philander's reference to 'the
French' refers to the production ofThe Eiffel Tower Wedding Party, which was a
Franco-Namibian cultural exchange production running atthe National Theatre atthe
time ofthe interview. Itwas alocalisation ofJean Cocteau's Wedding onthe Eiffel
Tower using acombination of skilled French performers and acompany of local
Namibian performing artistes. The exercise when viewed from the perspective ofthe
French Government must have appeared to be acollaborative venture incultural
exchange with arelatively new state inMrica which could foster goodwill, introduce
alittle ofthe French dramatic tradition to anon-franco phone part ofMrica, and
provide some actor training through workshops with the relatively new body of
performers. Philander and other prominent theatre practitioners inNamibia look at
this from quite adifferent perspective. Schauffer and hisIndian research assistant
attended the opening night ofthe production inquestion. Schauffer's log contains the
following comment:
Itwas strange sitting inthe auditorium of aNational Theatre ina
newly independent African country to witness aperformance of a
work byJean Cocteau! Itfelt even stranger to look about andto
realise that the audience was composed ofwhite members ofthe
diplomatic corps, Embassy staff, Field workers, andlocal
122
expatriate continentals - except for the Black African lady behind
us who spoke French - and Nivashni Naidoo my research
assistant. If this was being presented for the benefit of Namib ian
cultural development, where were the Namibians I wondered?
(Log.)
This was the kind of exercise that riled Philander.
We fought them prior to independence - we are still fighting them
because the changes that have happened amount to a
smokescreen ... it is a useless, toothless body and there is a lot of
incompetence involved ... This new Union is now on the attack
pushing for re-appointments of those who run this institution as
though it were a fiefdom .... I'm too old for all this now - I'll be
dead soon.
(NIFP)
Frederick Philander is a remarkable man in a number of ways. He was born on 12
December 1949 in Beaufort West in South Africa, where his father was a railway
policeman. He is a prolific individualistic scriptwriter in a part of the world where the
move is towards group authorship, and work shopping with often no script being
recorded at all.
He arrived in Windhoek in the late 1970's and for twenty years he has kept his
organisations: Windhoek Theatre Association and Committed Artists of Namibia alive
on a professional basis without accepting funding from any government or
International agency in a part of the world where most theatre now tends to be donor-
driven community theatre. He is to date Namibia's only published black playwright in
123
a part of the world where published play scripts are rare indeed (as has previously
been noted). In his typical vociferous way Philander goes on:
These foreigners come with their donor money and they select
and divide us. ... We refused that money from the outset. We
want our dignity. We don't want to be kept hostage, culturally,
for the rest of our lives. Being independent, if we want to
criticise the government in a play, we do so. We owe them
nothing because they give us nothing ...
(N/FP)
The Schauffer collection contains six plays by Frederick Philander, namely King of
the Dump, The Railway Man, The Beauty Contest - An Adult Play, The Curse, Two
Men and a Baby, and The Porridge Queen. We consider them briefly below.
4.1.1 King of the Dump was originally written in Afrikaans in 1985, translated into
English in 1986, and was banned by the all-white South African government in 1988.
In 1996 the BBe selected King of the Dump for broadcast to more than 400 million
radio listeners in more than seventeen sub-Saharan English speaking African
countries. It won for the BBC first prize when the recording was entered for the New
YorkDrama Festival. (All of the above is taken from Background of the Play, which
appears as introduction to the playscript King of the Dump.) The stage scenery called
for in Philander's plays is modest in its production demands, and one imagines the
work being presented in a 'black box' setting. In King of the Dump the set is a heap of
garbage disposal bags and boxes. The number of performers is also modest. In this
case it is a three-hander, with two central characters Pompie and Eva and a minor
character (the Driver). The lighting effects called for are simple and do not rely upon
124
a large number of lighting units and elaborate dimming facilities. The dialogue is
terse, fast moving, and gutsy in its use of language appropriate to characters and the
situation. 'Shit', 'fat arse', 'panty sniffing', 'bare buttocks', 'fuck', 'fat slob', 'bastard', 'he
rides me (sexual gesture)', 'arse-creeper', 'gat', 'shit-head', 'pee-pot', 'voetsek', 'kielie
met 'n mielie', 'dig the thing', 'piss', 'shit-hole', 'doodle' all tumble over each other with
abandon in the nine scenes of what is essentially a one-act play. One of the meta-
theatrical devices that are standard in all Philander's plays is the direct address to the
audience. For example when Eva and the Driver of the rubbish truck are about to
have sex the Driver suddenly becomes very conscious of the audience and says: 'No
not here. Look at all the people.' (Philander, F.: 1986. , P. 21).
Philander also draws heavily upon the rich, earthy expressiveness of Cape Coloured
Afrikaans, which is naturally lost to a large extent in translation.
4. 1.2 The Railway Man is a one-man play in nine scenes that uses oral storytelling
techniques to recall memories of childhood. Much of the play is autobiographical and
the 'Actor' in the play is really Philander himself Here, as in his other work,
Philander sometimes draws us alarmingly close to the characters he portrays. In this
case it is not only the tattered clothes and squalid living conditions that become real to
us, but also the stinking feet, the foul breath, the body odour, and the amazing number
of times farting and shit enter into the picture.
The play was later presented at the Grahamstown Festival and was described by a
critic for Fringe Voice as 'a riveting, mature play that will stand its own amongst
theatre audiences anywhere in the world.' (Philander, F.: 1997. Introduction). The
125
Afrikaans version was published bythe University ofPretoria (Makro Publishers) and
prescribed as asetwork inAfrikaans atthe same University.
4. 1.3 The Beauty Contest -AnAdult Play was first presented at The Warehouse in
Windhoek in 1989. Subsequently the play was performed for three years running
from 1989to 1991 asabox-office hit atthe Grahamstown Festival. Part ofthe reason
for this isthat, apart from being outrageously funny italso involves the fondling of
the actress's large bare breasts andthe full frontal nudity ofthe male performer.
Philander himself took the part ofthe male character Klaas Geswind. (The name is
derived from the Afrikaans name chosen bythe poet F.W. Reitz for hisAfrikaans
version ofRobert Burns's Tam 0' Shanter.) The play tackles the issue ofthe
exploitation ofwomen inbeauty pageants and inthe play the tables are turned onthe
photographer who preys on apparently gullible Saartjie Sieberhagen. The nudity then
ismotivated bythe dramatic situation and sanctioned also bythe farce-burlesque
style.
4. 1.4 The Curse isafour-act playwhich concerns the Namibian struggle for
independence and self-determination. Whilst this has documentary elements, the
dramatised version ofthe events shifts the play from the category ofprotest
documentary to theatre ofresistance. Atthe end ofthe play the white mayor of
Windhoek, who istrying to persuade the township dwellers of Old Location to move,
tothe newly established high-density township ofKatatura, isstoned bythe crowd
and he falls. The crowd alsothrow sticks and missiles atthe police who retaliate with
live ammunition killing eleven and wounding forty-five. The narrator isused to fill in
the details. The political nature ofthe material is self-evident when one reads the list
126
of characters at the beginning and one discovers there that one of the characters in the
play is Sam Nujoma (now the President).
Informing the political commentary here and elsewhere in his work was his personal
experience of repression, which drove him into self-imposed exile in 1979. He arrived
in Windhoek as a teacher and as ajournalist and soon set up his own theatre company
(see above). In keeping with the political statement the play is making, when the
portrayal of the history of the removal from Old Location turns to violent resistance at
the end of the play, local dominant languages of the people are used namely Herero
and Nama together with Mrikaans and English, the imported languages of the
oppressors in this case. The play starts however on a comic, farcical note with an
aggressive white policeman Sergeant Lombard marching in with two 'Kaffir'
municipality policemen or 'Bouker-Police' as they are called. Pineas and Klaas
Togoma are characters that could have come straight from a pantomime production.
They can't tell left form right so the sergeant has red ribbons tied around their right
feet and straw around their left feet and they march to the command:
Ep Ai! Rooivoet! Strooivoet! (p. 2)
But they can't manage this because they complain:
But boss it is too dark. We cannot see! (p. 5)
This farcical opening gives Philander the opportunity to reveal the sergeant's racist
attitudes in outbursts such as:
127
Boetjie:
Handjievol:
Lombard:
Boetie.
Then you have the nerve to tell me you are capable of ruling your own country!
And with reference to Sam Nujoma:
Who the hell does he think he is? The King of Kaffirland!
It is in this play that we first meet the character of'Handjievol', a stout, middle-aged
mother who emerges again as a more developed character in The Porridge Queen, a
play that was first performed in 1995.
In The Curse Handjievol earns money by taking in washing for Mrs. Lombard, the
sergeant's wife. When Boetie, Handjievol's husband is arrested and beaten up by the
police on suspicion of his being a communist and afollower of 'that agitator Sam
Nujoma', Mrs. Lombard secures his release, which on the surface appears to be a
sympathetic and humane response to the plight of the Bloodstaan family, but when the
released Boetie, embittered by his treatment atthe hands ofthe police, turns on Mrs.
Lombard Philander creates some mature dialogue that moves beyond stereotype:
(Cheerily) Good morning Handjievol. Morning
(Boetie turns his back on her) I came to fetch the
washing.
I'll go and get it (turns around). Thank you for
getting my husband from jail, miesies Lombard.
Mrs. Lombard: Oh, I only did my Christian duty. (Handjievol enters house).
And how does it feel to be home Boetie?
(Grudgingly) You have the audacity to ask.
Look at me.
128
Mrs. Lombard: Ididn't wanttobeinsulted byyou. Igotyouout
ofjail andthisiswhat Iget.
Boetie: You shouldthank your lucky starsthatyouare
alivebecause mypeople arefedupofyou
whites hereinthelocation.
Mrs. Lombard: Sincewhen amInotallowed toenterthe
location?
Boetie: Listen woman! Youwhites areallabunch of
exploiters...
Mrs. Lombard: What's gotintoyou,Boetie? Idon't know you
likethis. Itmustbethework ofthose agitators!
Boetie: That'swhat youBoers always saywhen youare
confronted withthetruth. Youthink I'mstupid.
I'veseenthrough you. Mywife works foryou
dayandnight andwhat doessheearn? Penny
heypenny. ThatiswhyIsayyouwhites only
exploit us. You've never everbeen honest with
us.
Mrs. Lombard: Idon'tthink Ideserve tolistentoyouI'vealways
treated youandyourwifewithrespect and
dignity.
Handjievol: (Returns withthewashing) Here isthewashing
miesies Lombard.
Mrs. Lombard: (Grabs washing) Thank you. Andhere's your
money. You don'thavetowork formeany
longer.
Handjievol: But what's going on?
Mrs. Lombard: Askyour rude husband.
(Philander F.: 1990.pp.34-35)
Insightful probing through arichsubtext occurs againandagain inhiswork.
129
4. 1.5 Two Men and a Baby. Before we meet with more fully realised character of
Handjievol in The Porridge Queen we need to consider a play first staged at the
National Theatre of Namibia as a one-act playas part of the Youth Theatre
Competition in 1994. After revision and reconstruction Two Men and a Baby, in its
re-written full-length form (the version in the Schauffer collection) was presented at
the National Theatre of Namibia in 1995. The play was critically acclaimed in The
Namibian (See press cuttings in the Schauffer collection). Two tramps Juba and
Nelson, who - like Zakes Mda's tramps in We Shall Sing for the Fatherland - live in
the public park, find a white baby abandoned in a rubbish bin that they regard as their
kitchen. Having found this white baby girl they now face the problem of what on
earth to do with the child. They layout the scenes where Juba takes the child to the
police and the welfare departments. In both cases their improvisation leads them to
the suspicion that they would be arrested for stealing a White child. They anticipate
that all manner of awkward questions would be asked like:
Nelson: Address? (Juba hesitates) Come on I haven't got all day?
Juba: Bench number five, city park sir. That's where we found the child.
Nelson: (Stern) Bullshit! You kidnapped that child!
(p. 10)
As Nels<?nobserves earlier,
... White child in the company of two Black men? Try to
explain that to any judge in this country.
(p. 10)
130
But the child begins to recall inthem feelings of compassion and paternity - qualities,
which their brutalised life-experience has suppressed inthem. Even the more
negative ofthe two, Nelson, ends up bringing the child milk and arattle, and atin of
food, which turns out to be dog food. After spending one night with the child,
arguing who should clean and change the child etc. they both realise that they cannot
keep the child. In a sentimental ending Juba leaves the child covered in his coat on
the park bench 'where somebody might see her.' He concludes the play with this
somewhat melodramatic speech:
Juba: (After covering up the child inhis coat) God bless you my
child, may you be found by someone that will take care ofyou
the way Iwould have ifyou were my own. (Turns around to
Nelson) Come, Nelson. Let's go before Ireally start to cry.
(They both leave. Juba stops andturns to child) Goodbye sweet
angel from Heaven.
(Blackout. Child cries mix with fading light and sad instrumental music playing).
(pp. 34-35)
Whether sentimentally expressed or not the intention isclear, Juba has been deeply
touched bythe child. The greatest shift inperception occurs with Nelson however.
His first physical encounter with the child isportrayed as follows:
Nelson: (Takes the child) Bye love! Itfeels strange. I have
never touched awhite person so closely in all my life!
What a soft skin!
Juba: Yes, sotender.
Nelson: (Change in attitude) Here, take your White-by-Night
child! (Hand over the child).
Juba: (Surprised) What's wrong with you now?
131
Nelson: Iwould have felt more atease ifit had been aBlack
child.
Juba: Are you inferior tothe child orwhat isthe problem?
Nelson: No Iamnot, but itistheir laws that made us inferior;
we had to live inhomelands, carry dompasses, the
Immorality Act, need Isaymore?
(p.13)
He also suggests that they sellthe child to achildless white couple but after naming
the baby girl Fiela Nongatsile Kruger, Nelson realises that the baby has 'really crept
deep' into Juba's heart. After hisreturn from the park hetoo seems toyearn for an
emotional bond with the child -the kind offeeling that Juba reveals as hetalks tothe
baby inNelson's absence:
... there isno future for the two ofustogether. Much asIwould
like to keep you asmy own, the odds are against us:the police,
the welfare people, andthis whole world with itsnorms and laws.
We don't stand achance. But Iwill always be indebted toyou for
bringing happiness into the heart ofanold man like myself You
rekindled the passion for life andunleashed the love and care in
me like the father Inever could beto myown daughter. You will
always live inmy heart.
(p.28)
When Nelson returns he has brought the child arattle and he sings itnursery rhymes
and plays with it. Juba isamazed atthe transformation.
132
Juba: (Shocked) A rattle and toys! I wonder whether you have
ever brought your own children such things let alone
played with them?
(p. 30)
It is difficult to judge this writing because as has been noted earlier with reference to
the South Mrican material the words are just fragments of what is created in
performance.
4. 1.6. In The Porridge Queen (first performed in 1995) we again meet Handjievol
who now has a stall on a street corner in Katatura Township. She sells various kinds
of porridge under an umbrella marked 'Handjievol's Den. The Porridge Queen'. This
is Philander's longest play and its three-scene structure suggests an interval break after
Act 1 because Act one contains 12 scenes. Act II contains 8 scenes and Act III
contains four scenes. Selling pap on the street corner presents the dramatist with
some fine opportunities for Handjievol to encounter a stream of characters as they
pass by and to exchange with them comments on a wide range of subjects of general
and topical concern.
It seems that politically speaking the honeymoon is over for SWAPO as far as
Philander is concerned. Five years before writing The Porridge Queen Sam Nujoma
had been valorised in The Curse, but here he is lampooned. In describing how on TV
and radio Sam Nujoma urges people to work hard for the nation, Handjievol adds:
Dit is natuurlik as tate Sam nie in die lug rondjakker of met groot
doenerigheid and gepaardgaande geraas soos 'n rykmanskind met
133
baie speelgoed, in Windhoek se strate rondjaag in vyftien karre
en sewe motorbikes wat soos 'n stoet uit die hel ry.3
(p. 14)
The she proceeds to imitate the way he speaks. This lampoon of characters who use
'Namibian English' or 'Namlish' is reserved for those associated most closely with
SWAPO and their former PLAN liberation army members like the character
Oshikapepi who is described by Handjievol as:
... a former PLAN fighter in the Liberation War ... was
decorated for bravery for running away from the Caspirs 4 and the
South African soldiers in the bush in a record time of 10,5
seconds! And now? Only one-man rubbish operator in the
location!
(p.20)
The image of the gallant SWAPO freedom fighter is given a terrible drubbing, as is the
image of their gallant leader,
(Imitates Nujoma in broken English) "We, the courlages peopols
of Namibia, have-a won the-a liberation struggle with our blood.
Naw, we have-a to work-a hard to achieve economic
independence. "
(p. 14)
The Porridge Queen must surely be the most sustained critique of the Namibian
Government and its incompetence of any play ever created in the country. Philander
134
leaps in where angels fear to tread - and with boots on! Nothing is sacred including
the church! With lyrics such as the following, you know exactly where you are in that
regard.:
Gentle Jesus Mickey -Mouse
Now we dance in the smokkel house.
(p. 53)
This is the play that won Philander the Bertrams Award in 1996. This is the version
of the script which is to be found in the Schauffer collection. In 2000 Philander
submitted a TV script of this play to the NBC (see interview NIFP). The script would
present a few problems for a potential publisher as it is multilingual and many of the
nuances of Cape Coloured Afrikaans for example would be difficult to capture in their
rich expressiveness when transcoded into English.
4.2 Vickson Tablah Hangula
In an interview with Philander conducted in Windhoek North on 24/0512000,
Schauffer asks him for his response to the work of Vickson Hangula and in particular
to his production The Show isn't over untiL .. In response Philander comments:
This show ... is a latecomer to what I've been writing all these
years ... If you want to know my views of the local government,
it's all locked up in the three plays (The Porridge Queen, The
Curse, The Known People). It's a saga of incompetence and
ignorance ... So, if you compare The Show isn't over until... with
The Porridge Queen it's a Sunday school picnic by comparison.
(philander interview 24/05/2000)
135
Later inthe same interview however he cites Hangula as one ofthe young playwrights
with remarkable talent and great potential.
Unlike many of the younger theatre practitioners in Windhoek that were taught and
encouraged by Philander, Hangula was educated atMartin Luther High School in
Omaruru, aprivate church-run school that was one of only three independent private
schools open to African students prior to political independence. After completing his
high school training he came to Windhoek with the intention of studying drama at the
University ofNamibia. Despite good grades he was unable to secure abursary, as
drama was not considered apriority for funding inthe newly independent state.
Hangula, in common with many of his contemporaries spent time working as a
facilitator/performer for Bricks Community Theatre group inKatatura township. He
also worked for the community theatre outreach programme for the National Theatre
ofNamibia (NTM).
Whilst his interest in filmmaking was stimulated by attending aUNESCO sponsored
Film and Video Training School inZimbabwe in 1998, the work that has brought him
most prominently into the public eye is The Show isn't over untiL.. This won the
Golden Pen Playwright ofthe year award in 1998 and because of this could claim
government funding to tour to the Maitisong festival inBotswana. The irony of the
situation was that the play is deeply critical of both SWAPO and the current Namibian
Government. The performance in Gabarone was acutely embarrassing to the
Namibian diplomatic representatives inthat country, and those in Windhoek who had
sanctioned the funding for the tour came close to being dismissed from their posts.
136
Naturally all ofthis caused agreat deal of comment and debate inthe local press and
the issue of censorship ofthe Arts inthe new society was raised.
The play was invited totour tothe Market Theatre inJohannesburg but onthis
occasion government funding, usually available for international exposure to
Namibian art and culture, was not forthcoming. Testimony tothe public interest in
and support for this work however was demonstrated inthe offer ofanonymous
private sponsorship, which was eagerly accepted.
So,whilst Philander jealously safeguards his artistic integrity by not accepting any
form of sponsorship, Hangula pragmatically accepts the money but stillkeeps his
independent critical vision.
Whilst Hangula has acted for Philander and hasbeen influenced profoundly by his
work, he does not follow him inthe use ofhistypical theatrical devices. For example
Hangula's characters do not address the audience directly. InThe Show isn't over
until... Hangula employs ameta-theatrical device ofpresenting rehearsal ofaplayas
aplay. This device isuseful inthat itenables Hangula to interrupt the flow ofthe
'presentation' to comment, through the character ofthe performers, onthe content. In
addition he uses anarrator figure for further comment. This inner commentary isset
up early inscene one:
Karin: Well then maybe Ihave asolution. Ihappen to have aniece who has
finished her Diploma inNature Conservation eight months ago. She could not
get ajob up to now! Bloody SWAPO government! ... (Stops in mid-sentence
and looks at director) I'm sorry Mr. Director. Ireally don't feel alittle bit too
comfortable with the dialogue here. People will think that Iamreally an anti-
government racist.
137
Director: (irate) What isthis? Where isyour professionalism? Are you an
ACTOR? Do you think that allthose white people who portray white trash,
Ku Klux Klan, psychos and murderers are likethat inreal life? Those are
respected actors like Woody Harrelson, Robert deNiro, James Woods,
Sharon Stone, the super-bitch Julia Roberts andthe others. And why do
people love them somuch? Because they dojustice totheir characters.! Now,
ACTION!
Karin: But honestly, right now isnot anideal time to come up with such
characters. Maybe inanother ten years. You know the political set-up inthis
country. IfPeter Tshirumbu's Men inBlack are inthe audience, they will not
differentiate between character and me! Those bunch ofassholes will soon
start following me wherever I'll go!
(Hangula, y.: 1998)
Philander's comment onthis work isnot without substance, however, when itcomes
tohis claim to have covered this ground before inaplay like The porridge Queen.
One aspect of importance however must notbe overlooked. Criticism ofthe
government by an expatriate Cape Coloured writer isone thing, the same criticism
from an Oshiwambo isquite another interms of socio-political impact. Some ofthe
issues covered, which are common ground forthetwo playwrights, are:
1) The equating of incorrect English pronunciation with low status. (e.g.
President SamNujoma's pronunciation.)
2) The corruption inthe Government's financial administration.
3) Nepotism
4) Criticism ofthe government's arts funding policy.
5) The issue ofwhose interests the NTN isserving.
138
6) The criticism that some of the leadership in exile led lives ofluxury and
debauchery whilst the comrades at home were risking their lives in the
bush. Now those that got used to the best stick to the best in the new
society whilst the former freedom fighters are forgotten and live in
squalor.
Interestingly enough both playwrights see their future in television rather than in live theatre.
Dr. Omoregie in Botswana contemplates moving in the same direction. As we shall see in the
next chapter on Lesotho, Tjotjela Mor'a Moshapela"s entire output of dramatic writing is for
educational television. The development of small television production houses to feed
television broadcasters with local and indigenous material seems to be opening the door to
many budding playwrights to make their contribution via this medium. The long-term
implications and effects of this trend will be most interesting to observe and chronicle as such
developments unfold over the next few years.
The pilot study reveals that most of the elements of quadralation are present here but there is
very little evidence to date of the influence of 'traditional indigenous performance forms'.
Before any conclusions can be drawn the study needs to broaden its scope to include material
from regions outside of the Windhoek area.
139
NOTES
1 CAPAB = Cape Performing Arts Board
2 PACT =Performing Arts Council of the Transvaal
3 Slang based on Afrikaans. Translation: 'That is naturally just as long as father Sam is not
gallivanting around in the air [a reference to the controversial purchase of a presidential plane
for his private use] or charging about the streets of Windhoek, with great bustle and attendant
noise, like a rich man's child with lots of noise of fifteen cars and seven motorbikes like a
procession from hell.'
4 An armoured military vehicle used by the South African defence force
140
CHAPTER FIVE
Lesotho
The kingdom of Lesotho is about the size ofBelgium and it is entirely surrounded by
South Africa. This latter fact had an enormous impact upon its political and social
history. As a country it isunique inthe world in having all of its territory located at
more than 1000 metres above sea level. 75% ofLesotho is mountainous. Most ofthe
population lives inthe lower lands ofthe north and the west where the capital,
Maseru, and most ofthe arable land are located.
Lesotho was founded as anation by King Moshoeshoe I, who established a fortress
for his Basotho followers at Thaba Bosiu. Inthe long and complex history, which
followed and which is described in detail by Richard Brown (and revised by
Christopher Saunders) in Africa South ofthe Sahara 2000, the internal struggle for or
preservation of political power saw the creation ofBasotholand, as it was known at
the time, as aBritish Protectorate in 1868. Post-colonial independence came in 1996
and was followed by states of emergency, coups, military rule, the intervention of the
OAU, the commonwealth and South African Government, and the replacement,
restoration and succession of monarchs. More recently in (1998) the intervention of
South African troops, in an attempt to stave off acollapse of law and order and yet
another military coup, led to extensive looting of businesses inMaseru and the flight
ofthousands of people into the countryside and into South Africa, and the setting up
of an Interim Political authority. With an estimated 25% ofthe male population
working in the mines of South Africa and anunemployment figure estimated at 40%,
141
this does not add up to an ideal environment in which to nurture and develop live
theatre even in its popular form.
At the same time it is not surprising that the only local commercial publishers are all
associated with specific religious denominations. About 70% of the population are
Catholic and Mazenod, the largest of the local publishers is an Institute of the Roman
Catholic Church. About 30% of the population are Lesotho Evangelical and the
second largest publishing house is Morija Sesuto Books, which is owned by the
Lesotho Evangelical Church. The Catholic Church also runs the third, St. Michael's
Mission. It specialises in religious publications.
5.1 TsokoloMuso (Tjotela mor'a Moshpelal
Tjotjela mor'a Moshapela's real name is Tsokolo Muso. He was born at Reitz in the
Free State but grew up in Natal. In the early 40's he was acting in plays produced by
King Edward Masinga. He recalls in an interview with Schauffer (L./T.M.) that on
weekends, dramatisations of the lives of the Zulu people were presented in the YMCA
Hall in Beatrice Street. But he also recalls that as early as 1921 Hugh Tracey who
was then the director of the SABC in Durban had taken a keen interest in African
music, Drama and dance.
According to Tsokolo Muso, Tracey recorded short stories from wherever he went
throughout the country and these he presented on radio. There was of course no
television service at that time. Masinga also wrote plays for radio that were very
popular. These 'plays' were dramatised stories lasting ten minutes of broadcast time.
142
The plays were modest in length because inthose years Zulu and Indian languages
were allocated only 30 minutes a day for all services inthose languages. Tsokolo
Muso went into voluntary exile in 1959 and established himself in Lesotho. In
response to the question, 'Did you meet anybody who was doing scripted drama, who
wrote their own scripts?' The answer was 'No'. (L./T.M.)
This remarkable man lived in Sweden for 19years, and has visited America, Canada,
Whales, Turkey, Iraq, Iran and Russia. InBulgaria he was asked tojoin a Symphony
Orchestra as a singer performing inPeople's Concerts inthe open-air, singing for two
hours at a stretch to audiences of up to twenty five thousand people. Leaving Russia
he was helped by an Ethiopian friend to get into the University of Lund in Sweden
where he successfully completed aBachelor of Science intwo years. Tsokolo Muso
was driven by a desire to return to Lesotho to found anAcademy ofArts, which would
include the performing arts, visual arts, literary arts, and ethnocraft. Such an
Academy ofArts was registered in 1991. Muso was also inspired and influenced by
the work ofZakes Mda and his drama group atthe National University ofLesotho at
Roma. He worked with Zakes Mda's Marathozi Travelling Theatre group that
involved itself intheatre in education and theatre for development projects. At
present he isthe director ofthe Lesotho Academy ofArts, which he hopes will grow
and expand into aNational Technikon of Arts.
Currently he is working on Television Drama and scripts in Schauffer's collection
reveal a strong theatre for development approach, as illustrated by the following
selection of titles. (The scripts are all in Sesotho, sothe their English translations of
their titles follow): Tapol'a Thaba (Highlands potato), Kopanelo ea Boitjaro ka
143
Khoebe eaTapol'a Thaba (Co-operative effort togrow highlands potatoes), Polekelo
eaLihla 'Isoa (Storage ofHorticultural Products), Kotula, Pola uThothe
(Transportation ofHarvest), Kopanelo eaKhoebo kaLierekisie IeLinoa
(Commodification ofBeans and Peas), Kopanelo eaKhoebo kaLitholoana
(Commodification ofFruits), Mokopu, Maphutseng (Increased production, easily
grown, easily transported, easily preserved.)
These scripts are aimed atthe farming community, are simple and use five or six
scenes per episode with afew characters appearing inmore than one episode.
5.2 Sonny Sampson-akpan
From quite adifferent background isthe Nigerian born Sonny Sampson-akpan, who
atthe time ofwriting isa Senior Lecturer inthe English department atthe National
University ofLesotho, working inaway asZakes Mda's replacement. Most ofhis
theatre training and experience comes from Nigeria, andthe United Kingdom. Indeed
Nigerians appear to playa prominent role inthe teaching ofDrama and Theatre inthe
sub-continent. The work ofDr. Omoregie has already been mentioned inthe Chapter
onBotswana. Inthe interview with Schauffer from which the details here are
extracted, (LISSA) itappears that Sonny Sampson-akpan was made aware ofthe
teaching post atRoma through afellow Nigerian who was teaching drama inLesotho
andwho then moved tothe University of Swaziland, Dr. Patrick Ngewu. So
Nigerians now teach drama inthree SADC countries, while Prof Kole Omotoso,
highly regarded Nigerian playwright and academic, hasbecome anaturalised South
Mrican and isteaching inthe Drama Department atthe University of Stellenbosch.
144
According to Sonny Sampson-akpan, the turning point inhislife came in 1964 when
hewas inhigh school inNigeria. Ateacher, Dakwa Daluba, cast him inthe first play
he had ever performed in, and this was the lead role. By school standards this was a
success and this so inspired him that hebegan to involve himself inthe study and
practice ofdrama and theatre. This interest has grown and flourished since. (Dakwa
Daluba himself went onto become Professor andHead ofDepartment ofTheatre Arts
atthe University ofIbadan.)
Sonny Sampson-akpan has encouraged the writing ofplays and told Schauffer that he
was intending to edit some ofthe work that his students have produced which he finds
highly meritorious. The proposed publication had aworking title: Basotho Plays. All
ofthe plays take folktales astheir point ofdeparture. Inother words he and his
students are using the oral tradition asfoundation fortheir playwriting.
Schauffer has collected four of Sampson-akpan's own ten published plays. The
complete list reads asfollows:
i) Money Palavar: This isan adaptation ofChekhov's The Proposal! produced by
the Cultural Centre Board Calabar 1976.
ii) Ima: Calabar University andNational Theatre, Lagos 1977. According tothe
programme note, this isbased upon apopular Cross River State folksong-
'Atuak Ukot'.
iii) Ekaete2 was first produced in 1979but was revived for aseason inJune 1991
atthe Courtyard Theatre, University ofCalabar. This play deals with the
145
conflict between traditional marriage customs and court or church weddings
with certificates.
iv) The Asabo Tail: This most interesting script is based upon and Ibibio
folksong. It was first produced in 1981. Fortunately Schauffer's collection
includes a copy, which shall be examined in some detail as it reveals an
approach which could find application in Sampson-akpan's work in Lesotho.
v) Found and Lost: This was first presented in the Courtyard Theatre, University
ofCalabar in 1982. Fortunately again this is a script in the Schauffer
collection which will receive some attention as it is a one act play based
unusually on the only known playscript by the poet Rupert Brooke entitled
Lithuania. It also incorporates an episode drawn form Chekhov's The
Proposal.
vi) Mfon: Published by Modem Business Press, Uyo. 1987. (Revised and
reprinted in 1990). The Schauffer collection has the revised edition. In this
playas in Ekaete the subject is the conflict between traditional courtship
customs and the influence of western notions.
vii) A Son in Search of a Mother: first produced in 1983. No details available.
viii) A Festival of Dances: first produced in 1989. The University of Calabar
Performing Company conducted a nation wide tour of this production from
1987-1991.
ix) Comments: Published by Modem Business press, Uyo: 1992. A copy is in the
Schauffer collection. This is a sequence of34 short monologues delivered in
succession by a single actor. The play was published under the general title of
Two Experimental Plays and appears in print with Ossie Enekwe's The
Betrayal.
146
Apart form the above Sampson-akpan completed anIbibio language play Isim Asabo
in 1995 and since his appointment to hisposition atthe National University of
Lesotho he has adapted Found andLost for Lesotho conditions. This was entitled
Found and Lost Again and was completed in 1998.
Before examining the scripts available itisperhaps appropriate to note that apart from
Mrican dramatists works, Sampson-akpan has acted inworks by Jean Cocteau, Jean
Paul-Sartre, Moliere, Anton Chekhov, Jean Anouilh, T.S. Elliot, Aristophanes, and
Bertoh Brecht. Notable amongst the Mrican writers areEfua Sutherland, Lewis
Nkozi, Fugard, Kani and Ntshona. Whilst the entire corpus ofhiswork was created
outside ofthe geographic area that forms part ofthe delimitation's ofthis study;
Sampson-akpan isnow actively involved inthe encouragement ofthe creation of
dramatic works and with the encouragement of scriptwriting. His plays are then
examined from the point ofview ofhow his approach to scriptwriting could possibly
be applied to histeaching inLesotho. As inthe case ofOmoregie inBotswana a
follow-up study isclearly called for inorder to verify or refute possibilities of
influence.
5.2.1 The Asabo Tail
The germinal stimulus for this play lies inanIbibio song. Chris Dunton ofthe
National University ofLesotho has written aforeword tothe play (the play isas yet
unpublished, but has been proposed for publication. The master copy isinthe
Schauffer collection). Dunton comments that the song inquestion
147
... hints (but only hints) at a larger - new unspoken - tale
that the dramatist has (re) constructed, providing
character, motivation and thematic significance to build
an edifice beyond the song, while retaining the song
itself, an entity that resonates, vibrant, throughout the
play.'
(Dunton: Proposed Foreword p.2)
The structure of the script is remarkable in many ways. Let us consider some of the
more interesting aspects.
His use of choruses for example creates a contrapuntal effect, which assists the debate
on issues of adequacy, fairness, and justified action; a debate, which is central to the
presentation of the storyline, based upon the traditional song. The song appears to
refer to a folktale or legend, which is now lost and so we only have a fragment of the
larger cultural miscellany. An important further function of the choruses is to
encourage audience response and audience involvement. The audience joins the
chorus in the response: 'Kpa nyoho nyoho'
This brings the performance close to the traditions of oral storytelling forms. Another
remarkable aspect of this play is Sampson-akpan's self-imposed restriction of the
seven-word line. This lends a disciplined poetic quality to the work. The
performance space is also divided into two levels. As Sampson-akpan points out in
the proposed Preface this 'split-level' operates 'first on the physical as a configuration
of stage space, and then in the main storyline as a manipulation of the antagonist and
148
protagonist groups as they battle for supremacy. It is a psychological warfare
physiologically externalised.' (Dunton: Proposed Foreword, p.8)
The title needs explanation. An 'Asabo' in Ibibio can be translated as 'python' and
there is a belief in the target audience that the 'sting' of the tail of the 'asabo' can also
kill the 'asabo' itself. In a way then the play also deals with an Ibibio idiom that
Sampson-akpan himself draws attention to with statements like 'asabo ababaak isim
omo', which translated into English means: 'The asabo dreads its own tail.'
The use of a traditional song linked to a lost legend of the community for which the
play was intended, anchors this play to the oral tradition and to its performative rather
than to its literary aspects. Two choruses defend the motivation and actions ofNso
(the man who is 'cured' of his blindness), Nne (his wife) and Adiaha Udo (his only
child), on the one hand, and on the other, the medicine man/healer Idiong and his
clan.
Commenting on the self-imposed restriction of the seven-word line Chris Dunton (in
the proposed foreword) observes that this,
..provides a discipline, a matrix, through which dialogue must be
constructed, and the end result is a sustained intensity, a steady,
even remorseless sense of forward movement ...
The Asabo Tail was written in English in 1981 and later Sampson-akpan decided to
translate it in Ibibio. The exercise proved enlightening to the author as he discovered
(to use his own words from the proposed Preface to the publication):
149
... the truth that the "English" of the "original" was really an
external trapping for the inner, the essential Ibibio. Like other
writers working across two languages had remarked our writings
are "English words, African thoughts" as Gabrial Okara
succinctly expressed it.
As in the original song the line 'Kpa nyoho nyoho' described by Sampson-akpan as a
'rhythmic folderol' is used as a refrain 'which the participating audience may sing to
maintain the rhythm and remain alert' (proposed Preface p.6).
The performance is designed then in such a way as to encourage audience
participation. Sampson-akpan tells us that:
In the Ibibio language hearers repeat words, phrases or sentences
in order to express their surprise or anger, or to register
disagreement or incredulity.
(Proposed Preface p.6)
The responsive convention is employed in the play to affirm opinions expressed by
the leading characters and this affirmation is chorused for amplification. Though not
perhaps as far removed from our appreciation as traditional Noh Theatre, or even
early Greek theatre, there is nevertheless a strong sense of ritual performance here
with the use of the choruses and the repetition of key detail, and the fixed metre of
seven words per line scrupulously observed throughout. There is thus an imposed
order evident here, reflective perhaps of the metaphysical order which plays itself out
150
in the administration of retribution in the conclusion to the work where Idiong, like
Oedipus is led blind having looked upon the vine stem that he himself had bewitched
in order to blind Nso, the father of Adiaha Udo whom Idiong wishes to claim as a
bride for restoring Udo's sight. But as the old Ibibio saying has it:
Once we shut and bar a door no one else besides the
contriver himself may successfully unbar and open the
door.
(TheAsabo Tail, unpublished script, p.39)
Idiong can cure Nso's blindness because he himself caused it, but here the other Ibibio
idiomatic expression which is used in the play and gives the title to the play, kicks in.
(As noted above the expression is 'Asabo ababaak isim omo', meaning 'The Asabo
dreads its own tail'.)
Idiong looks upon the vine stem he himself has bewitched and this renders him blind.
This might seem to western readers to be a case of the villain getting his just deserts,
but retributive justice is, it seems, peculiarly Western in its ethos. Afrocentric
concepts of justice seem to put the emphasis rather upon the restoration of order in
society (see Mariba Ani, 1994). From that perspective then Idiong disrupted the
natural order ofNso's family and challenged the social order by seeking a young girl
for his wife when he is old enough to have fathered her. It would be interesting to
compare Afrocentric notions of justice and order, human weakness, appeal to and
appeasement ofthe ancestors, with the Greek concepts of Hubris, Ate, and the will of
the Gods etc. But therein lies another thesis!
151
5.2.2 Other plays: Found and Lost, Mfon, and Comments
Found and Lost combines social realism, an adaptation ofa section ofChekhov's The
Proposal, and a somewhat melodramatic ending. Whether this is a successful
combination or not would have to be left to the director of such a script. Reading the
script one might be forgiven for recalling not only Chekhov's The Proposal but there
are definite hints of Shakespeare's Macbeth in all of this. In addition Sampson-akpan
acknowledges that the inspiration for this play came form Rupert Brooke's playscript
Lithuania a copy that he accessed through the Nnamdi Azikiwe Library of the
University of Nigeria in Nsukka. He also reveals under a heading of
'Acknowledgements' in the introductory pages to the published play script (p. iii), that
Jas Amankular cast Sampson-akpan in a role in his production of Anton Chekhov's
The Proposal, which clearly had a major effect upon Sampson-akpan.
In Mfon Sampson-akpan turns his attention again to the generation gap and different
approaches towards the institution of marriage in different societies. By all accounts
this is a similar theme to that which he treated earlier in Ekaete. For this reader
however the ameliorative tone of the ending robs us of the investigation into a most
pertinent issue in Black African society, namely traditional approaches to social
organisation versus modern WesterniEurocentric approaches.
Comments is different again form all his other works. It is a series of 34 terse
monologues, which comment on the social, political, economic and cultural life of
Nigeria at the time of writing. The lively style is facilitated by the use of short lines
152
and clipped commentary. The monologues are caustic in tone and filled with satirical
innuendo. The solo performer uses a few simple props and also enlivens the
performance with short mimed sequences.
To provide a brief example, this is the Seventh Comment:
(Reads from another newspaper ... )
Sayings of the wise.
Half bread is better than none.
(To audience ... comments)
That is not true.
That is not wise.
It is a threat.
The bread is ours,
Give it to us in full,
undivided,
complete.
Why keep the other half to yourself?
I pray you,
Have we ever implored Him
(Hands clasped in prayers ... )
"... give us this day
our daily half bread?"
Any day, anytime, anywhere
The whole bread is better than half.
(Sampson-akpan: 1992, pp. 4-5)
Sonny Sampson-akpan is an innovative, versatile dramatist with a keen sense of
humour that can tum caustic or wry depending upon the subject, which forms the
quarry ofthe humour. He is clearly playing a major role in the region and one would
153
have to undertake a more comprehensive and evaluative study of his influence after
the publication of the proposed Basotho Plays.
5.3 Conclusion
As had been noted often enough, theatre is a dynamic art and will always be in a state
of development and flux. What this brief overview reveals is that there are new
developments in the region and that a number of positive factors exist which could
potentially influence the short and long-term growth and development of theatre and
Drama in countries like Botswana and Lesotho. These developments need to be
recorded and researched, particularly the work of the new names coming to the fore
and the innovative new forms being utilised. It is thus an urgent necessity that follow-
up studies be undertaken of the contribution to dramaturgy and to theatre practice in
Botswana and Lesotho of the individuals we have touched on in this overview -
including Zakes Mda and the Nigerians Omoregie and Sampson-akpan - as well as
further studies and interviews with unpublished or 'undiscovered' local writers. (It
would be interesting for example to follow up on the contribution made by Dr. Patrick
Ebewo at the University of Swaziland.)
END NOTES TO CHAPTER FIVE: LESOTHO
1 What with Omoregie creating anadaptationofGogol'sInspector Generalitwould appear that
Nigerian expatriates who are involvedwith theteaching ofDrama havebeen heavily
influencedbyRussian dramatists.
2 It is interesting to note that thisplayisnamedafter one of Sonny Sampson-akpan's children,
his daughterEkaete.
154
CHAPTER SIX
Swaziland, Zimbabwe and
Mozambi<t!!?
6.1 Introduction
Thus far, with the material gathered from field trips, from statistical records, and from
additional readings ofhistorical and theoretical works ithas been possible to enter into
areasonably detailed account ofthe work of selected Black African dramatists who
are active inthe sub-continent. Ithad been the aim ofthis study to also dothe same for
the three countries under discussion inthis chapter. Disappointingly itturned out that,
both for the professional and personal reasons of already stated inthe Introduction to
thesis, and more specific problems to be outlined below, insufficient primary source
material was accessible to the researcher to enable her to formulate anything more
than avery general and skeletal overview ofthe above countries. Not, of course, that
such material does not exist, but texts, interviews and secondary material were simply
not available to this researcher atthe time ofwriting. Internet searches for published
dramatic works inprint from Zimbabwe, Swaziland and Mozambique, aswell as a
study ofthe holdings libraries in South Mrica, have yet to yield significant results for
example.
Inthe case of Swaziland the indications have been that there isvirtually no published
drama written specifically for theatrical presentation from that country. The scripts
155
that do exist are in siSwati (hence inaccessible for this study) and were specifically
produced as setworks for schools - a pattern for much of the writing in indigenous
languages (except Afrikaans) in the whole region, including South Africa. The South
African publishing firm of Shuter and Shooter have for example published some such
material, but - as in the case of the early plays of Tjotjela mor'a Moshapela in Lesotho
- these had been written strictly to be read, as part of a language study course in
schools and colleges, and were never intended for live presentation. In terms of the
aims of this thesis they are thus of little real interest. This conclusion may however,
need to be tested more thoroughly.
Zimbabwe by contrast, has a rich performance tradition, as can be seen in the literature
and published material, and has produced a considerable output of plays, for many of
which scripted dramas are obtainable. Unfortunately the volatile and racially charged
political climate at the time ofthe fieldwork made it unsafe and impracticable for a
white researcher to tour the country in search of original material and interviews, so
much of what follows can only rely on secondary sources. A follow-up study is
imperative therefore once more stable political conditions exist in Zimbabwe.
As far as Mozambique is concerned the national lingua franca is not English, as in the
rest of the region (except Angola, which was not included), but Portuguese and the
language barrier set up by this proved to be a more significant deterrent to both
Schauffer as interviewer and to his Mozambican interviewees than he had anticipated.
A follow-up study would have to be undertaken and can only be done utilizing a
Portuguese-speaking interpreter or a researcher with a proficiency in the language.
156
Given these immense limitations, this chapter will nevertheless attempt to draw
together such strands ofinformation about the three countries that are to hand, and
consider aspects which may be ofuse inafuture follow-up study. These countries
make up asignificant part ofthe region and need tobe considered.
6.2 Swaziland
One reason that could be advanced forthe lack oftheatrical development (inthe
formal western sense) inthis context isthe fact that Swaziland isthe smallest country
inthe Southern Hemisphere. Itslandmass isjust over 17,364 sq.km according to The
Official SADC Trade, industry and investment Review 2000 (p, 304). The Swazis are
descendants from the Nguni people who migrated south from central Mrica several
hundred years ago. During the mid-18th Century agroup ofthem settled inthe area,
which isnow known as Swaziland. These people, theNkosi Dlamini, became known
asthe Swazis, and today both names are common (Nkosi means king and Dlamini is
the surname ofthe royal family). The Swazi nation took itsname, Emaswati, from
Mswati 1,who reigned during the 19th century. Itisamonarchy which has survived
into the twentieth century, often under difficult circumstances. Whilst this history
makes for interesting reading (see for instance R. Levin inMrica South ofthe Sahara
2000), itisthe fact that the monarchy plays an integral role inthe many traditional
ceremonies that form part ofthe rich cultural life ofthe nation that concerns us here.
So,whilst formal theatre may not be very prominent (the Swaziland Theatre Club in
Mbabana has been mentioned inpassing), there isanold and established tradition of
presentational forms inthe various rituals and ceremonies, and indance. In Chapter
157
Five we also referred to the recent appointment of the Nigerian Patrick Ngewu at the
University of Swaziland, who may well in future follow the trend set by his
countrymen in Lesotho and in Botswana, and encourage both community theatre and
scriptwriting.
In the material supplied by Schauffer there are however two interviews with Swazi
theatre practitioners, namely Andreus Mavuso and Sipho Mtetwa. In the absence of
scripts, we shall concentrate on those, to get some sense of prevailing conditions for
playwrights.
6.2.1 Andreas Mavuso
Mavuso originally became interested in the theatre through attending screenings of
movies, but he found that there was no training institution where he could go to in
Swaziland to further his interest. His family were involved with regimental ceremonial
events as part of the Monarchial Institution. So, he came from a background that
included ordered, formal, ritual, live presentation of choral and dance expression
within the ambience of the state.
Mat Manana, who was a Swazi veteran of the South African production Sponono
(Shah and Paton) which had toured the United States in 1961/62, exerted a great
influence on Mavuso. When Manana returned from America he brought with him a
dream of establishing a drama school. With the choral and dance skills ofMavuso,
Manana eventually set up PET (People 'sEducational Theatre). As a founder member
158
Mavuso worked hard andgained experience inadministration, acting, poetry and
drama (See SIAM)
Apart from reading books abouttheatre that hegotfrom libraries, Mavuso alsolearned
agreat dealfrom performing artists andprofessional storytellers thatwere sentto
Swaziland aspart ofthecultural exchange programmes oftheAmerican Cultural
Centre, andtheBritish Council. But, whilst allthistraining wasvaluable, italso
served toreveal toMavuso thatwhat wasbeing dealt withwas essentially what hehad
grown upwith.Hefound iteasythentocontemporise anoldstoryandthentoadd
choreography, drumming, anddance, tocreate aneffective theatre piece. Like his
counterparts inBotswana, Lesotho, Zimbabwe andNamibia heisnowturning his
attention towriting forTVasastepping-stone towards hisultimate dream ofmaking
thefirst Swazi produced film.Ashepoints out,after 32years ofindependence there
stillnoSwaziproduced film.
About Mavuso's view oftherelationship between theartsandthe state, Schauffer
records thefollowing inhislog:
Andreus isanentertaining fellow whotends toanswer questions with allegorical
expressions. So,when asked inconversation whether hewould liketopresent
hiswork atSwaziland Theatre Clubhereplied thatifhewent toswimindirty
water hisfriends would notjoin him.Inhisinterview heputs itslightly
differently. Then hesaidthatbecause itisprivately owned itisnotofthe State
andtherefore hecould notpresent workthere orfeelcomfortable about
attending shows there.
(SIAM)
159
Schauffer also asked him about direct or indirect censorship in the arts in Swaziland to
and his reply was enigmatic:
If you keep a snake in the room that people might think revives life and heat,
they would stay outside because of fear. It might rot there but they would be
afraid to open door.. .
(SIAM)
This cryptic response -taken in conjunction with the previous statements - seems to
suggest a difficult context for artists involved in any kind of collective and critical
work. In more concrete terms he went on to draw attention to the 1973 decree, which
prohibits associations and collective representation. On the other hand Mavuso told us
that he had presented a production that actually espoused the cause of collective
representation. In this play there was a scene where police are shown intimidating and
assaulting voters. The King saw the production and he did not have a problem with it.
For this reason Mavuso says: 'I've got this artistic freedom that when I'm not happy I
can speak my mind' (SIMA).
Schauffer next asked about financial assistance available for the arts from central
government, to which Mavuso replied:
...in 1996 there was the introduction of the Swaziland Council of Arts and
Culture, which is supposed to be a government wing. What amazes me is how
the government can appoint a Council of Arts and Culture with no budget ...if
we ask for transport they might just sponsor the transport only...but how would
you run a house if each time you wanted to buy a cabbage you have to go to the
neighbour for it.
(SIMA)
160
Mavuso isvery critical ofGovernment officials who goallovertheworld tocultural
conferences and,when theyreturn donotevenprovide areport. Heclaimsthat they
enjoythebenefits ofemployment butnotthework:
Ifyouareenjoying theworkthenyoucannot sitonacouncil without abudget.
Because itislikemarrying awifewhile youarenotworking...then what areyou
expecting hertoeat?
(SIMA)
Hepoints outthat inSwaziland there aredifferent perceptions about what constitutes
culture. Ultimately, asheputs it, I.. iftheKing dances, theculture iscomplete.'
Thethorny issue ofdonors totheArtswasalsoraised intheinterview andMavuso
explained that corporate bodies inSwaziland donothave socialresponsibility
programmes andifthey areapproached theytum round andask: 'What hasyour
government done?' His answer tothisproblem would betopersuade Government to
offertaxincentives tothose who donate totheArtsortosocialdevelopment
programmes.
Healsocomplained thattheUniversity hasnot seenfittosetupaDrama Department.
When Schauffer pointed outthat inLesotho itwastheEnglish andAfrican Languages
Departments thatwere promoting community theatre, Mavuso replied that at
Swaziland University theEnglish Department isaliveandwellwhen itcomes to
drama, butthatthisisprimarily forteachers who, whentheyjoin service aremore
worried about examination results than intheuseoftheatre asateaching methodology
forholistic approaches toeducation. TheUniversity does have ahallbut apartfrom
161
choral presentations it is used mainly for meeting, marriages, and for basket ball,
because boys want to walk with vests showing their muscles and that type of thing.
Mavuso argued that if SAT! can get itself recognised by the SADC Cultural Desk in
Mozambique, then it would gain enough acceptability and credibility with the
Swaziland government for it to make some meaningful intervention in the promotion
of theatre in Swaziland as well.
6.2.2 Sipho Mtetwa
The other Swazi person interviewed by Schauffer was Sipho Mtetwa who started out
as leader of a choral music group. He soon realised that keeping such a group together
was fraught with difficulties. The engagements are infrequent and the financial returns
are not significant. Above all during quiet times it is difficult to keep the group
together, to keep them motivated and focused. An invitation to perform at a festival in
Zimbabwe led to an interaction with professional theatre practitioners and other dance
groups such as the Black Umfolozi who regularly tour Europe and America for seven
to ten months of the year. As a result of such contacts the group decided to join the
Arts and Theatre Groups Association of Swaziland. Through this organisation they
attended workshops conducted by various practitioners sent by the Market Theatre in
Johannesburg. As result they took a production, Ubuntu Bamuntu , to the Market
Theatre. This play's story line involves a father's dying instructions to his son, which
are not carried out, bringing conflict between the older and the younger brother.
162
Mtetwa feelsthatthegreatest drawback totheatrical development isthetopography
andpopulation distribution. Not onlyarefacilities lacking inrural areas, even ifthey
didexist,theproblems oftransport andaudience numbers remain.
Whilst theproblems facing development oftheartsinSwaziland aremany and
complex, there nonetheless appear tobesomehopeful signsforthefuture anditwill
beinteresting toobserve theprogress oftheartsintheregion overthenextfivetoten
years.
6.3 Zimbabwe
Onegains some sense oftheimportance oftheatrical activity inZimbabwe when one
considers theentries inawork suchasTheCambridge Guide toMrican and
Caribbean Theatre. Ofthecountries under consideration here, four (Namibia, Lesotho,
Swaziland andBotswana) donotevenrateamention, whileMozambique isonly
mentioned briefly inasection onPortuguese-speaking Mrica intheintroduction. In
contrast Zimbabwe isaccorded quite aprominent entry,asisSouth Africa.
Another indication oftherange andvariety oftheatrical activity intheregion is
provided bywhat Schauffer referstojokingly ashis"Hit-list forZim", alistwhich
contains alltheknown companies (and individuals) hehadhoped tocontact. It
consists ofthefollowing: Vashandi Workers' Theatre Group, Zambuko/Izibuko (Univ.
Zimbabwe), Habbakuk Musengengezi's Community Theatre Group, Chindunduma
School Drama Group, Avondale Domestic Workers' Theatre Group, Amakhosi
Productions Bulawayo (Cont Mhlanga), ZIMFEP (Ngugi waMirrii), Ministry of
163
Youth, Sport &Culture (S.J.Chifunyise), Children' Performing Arts Workshop.
People's Company (still inexistence?), Mthwakazi Artists &Writers Association
(MAWA), Umzabalaza (Styx Mhlanga), Siyaya, Savuka, Mamabilela (Bulawayo),
Over the Edge (includes Whites, Indians &Coloureds), Reps Theatre, Savannah Arts,
ZACT
In addition Schauffer was going to attempt to collect some unpublished playscripts
and such published works asmight stillbe available from S.JChifunyise, Bertha
_Msora,Cont Mhlanga, T.Damgarembga, Aaron Moyo, Andrew Whaley, Habbakuk
Musengezi, GMujajati, William Chigidi, Ben Sibenke, and Thompson Tsodzo.
The issue of language would clearly have arisen as aproblem, since many ofthese
dramatists write in Shona and inNdebele. Afurther language-related issue to follow
up onismentioned by Styx Mhlanga inhis interview with Schauffer (Z/SM). He tells
Schauffer that the dramatist Cont Mhlanga had started writing inalanguage which
became known asNdeEnglish. (A mixture ofEnglish and Ndebele). Itwould be
interesting to compare the dramatic use ofNde English inZimbabwe with the use of
what iscalled Namlish inNamibia (as discussed inChapter Three).
Besides this material inpotentia, the Schauffer documents onZimbabwe contain only
two interviews, one with Daves Guja, and one with StyxMhlanga. Using these
interviews asbase, we may nevertheless point outafew specific issues current inthe
theatre industry inZimbabwe atthe end ofthe twentieth century.
6.3.1 Thetheatresystem
164
Dave Guja ishead ofavery important organisation called Rooftops Promotions, which
runs Theatre in the Park, the only independent theatre that hasbeen established in
Harare after independence. This isacommercial theatre, which works off a60:40 box-
office split (60% ofthe net profit going tothe performing group).
Guja was not influenced somuch by anytraditional forms, but his interest andtraining
inthe theatre was based onthe western models. Thus, for example, during the course
ofhistraining hewent on attachment to several courses on improvisation, direction
and mime (in the latter case itwas with the famous French mime artiste Paul Vere,
sometime assistant toMarceau). He also worked with Helge Skoeg ofSoup Kitchen in
Holland.
According to Guja theatre inZimbabwe exists onmany different levels. Alongside
independent practitioners and organisations, such asRooftop Promotions (which Guja
runs), there isthe older National Theatre Organisation which used to cater forthe
White expatriot community and which isnow open to all. Asan organisation itisstill
however associated with the production ofWestern and Eurocentric theatre.
Zimbabwe has aMinistry ofCulture, but its funds are limited for italso hasto cater
for more than the arts, encompassing the needs of sport and recreation ingeneral as
well. One ofthe reasons then for the formation ofthe National Arts Council was to put
the emphasis upon the needs ofthe arts alone. Atpresent the move isto commercialise
the organisation.
165
However, onthe more negative side, according Styx Mhlanga, Zimbabwe has no
National Theatre building or complex nor isthere yet aTheatre Union -although the
issue of setting up aUnion has gained momentum with actors becoming involved in
television and film work. Mhlanga told Schauffer that many performers have felt that
they have been exploited by directors when working onproductions and soitseems
that the time isright to revisit the idea offorming aTheatre Union.
6.3.2 Community theatre
Aswe have shown inChapter One, one ofthe most significant elements inthe theatre
system inmany ofthe countries being discussed, is community theatre. InZimbabwe
this isrepresented by ZACT (Zimbabwean Association of Community Theatre).
According to Schauffer (Zimbabwean Log), the origin ofZACT canbe traced back to
1982, when what was then theMinistry 0/Education and Culture decided to employ
two Kenyans, Ngugi wa Mirii and Kimani Gecau, andtheir brief was to develop a
community theatre movement under the Zimbabwe Foundation/or Education with
Production - or ZIMFEP asitwas more commonly known.
StyxMhlanga however, isonce more critical ofthe community theatre groups in
Zimbabwe. Apart from the issue ofbreeding an attitude inthe general public that
theatre is"for free", he maintains that when artists have secured donor funds, the
pressure tobe ascreative aspossible and to liveupto performance standards is
removed and the group becomes complacent. He claims that inZimbabwe audiences
will pay to see areputable company that produces good work. But ofcourse itshard
work to keep up standards and itisvery tempting to concentrate onthemes like AIDS,
166
deforestation, gender issues, and even voter awareness because groups know that
donor agencies are prepared to entertain funding for such work. Such groups have also
become astute in their ability to draw up funding proposals and know the kind of
records to keep and what feedback to give to donors (whether such record-keeping
and feedback is accurate or not!).
6.3.3 Thematicissues
The present political turmoil in Zimbabwe, whilst it may put a stay on research
fieldwork, may actually have a positive influence on the development of theatre in a
number of ways. As shown so well in the South Mrican experience under the so-
called CulturalStruggle, the essence of theatre is conflict and political conflict may
engender experimentation in theatre making. The conflict in Zimbabwe operates on
many different levels and it is clear that there are many and exciting themes which are
thus available to theatre companies and dramatists. Among those already used or
mentioned as potential themes have been the race issue, the land issue, the language
issue, the issue of the abuse of power, nepotism, corruption, white collar crime, the
independence of the judiciary, the issue of gay rights, human rights violations in
general, the powers of the president, representative versus consultative democracy, the
expectations of the freedom fighters versus the constitutional rights of ownership,
voting rights, the moral responsibility of the international community and the Southern
African community, etc. The list is virtually endless, but we can unfortunately go
little further at the present moment than to note the situation and its volatile nature.
167
6.4 Mozambique
Onbeginning this section ofthe chapter, the researcher made the disconcerting
discovery that virtually allthe literature on arts and culture inpre- and post-
independence Mozambique (including information on itstraditions ofplaywriting and
theatrical development inthe region) has been written inPortuguese and isthus
inaccessible for the purposes ofthis survey. Furthermore, Mozambique was the last
country onthe proposed field trip Schauffer andthe researcher, and unfortunately had
to be abandoned late inthe study (see Introduction). Schauffer's material isin
consequence the most scattered and disorganised andthis section merely attempts to
bring asemblance oforder tothe planning materials and accompanying notes, which
might be helpful for future research. (Atthe moment these entries are on scraps of
paper, envelopes, and in Schauffer personal diary.)
Inview ofthe foregoing, this outline ofthe cultural situation istruly only an
introductory exploration, based largely onthe few available English sources, notably
Joao Gomes Cravinho's chapter onthe recent history ofMozambique inAfrica South
ofthe Sahara 2000, (pp. 746-753) and The Cambridge Guide to Mrican and
Caribbean Theatre (p.13114), along with two interviews and Schauffer's notes. What
these sources make clear ishowever the very distinctive nature ofthe Mozambican
society, its arts and itshistory within the Southern Mrican context, and the need for it
tobe studied as part ofthe greater Southern Mrican context.
168
Having been colonised bythe Portuguese inthe 15th century, the country gained
independence in 1975. At independence the Frente deLibertacao deMocambique
(FRELIMO) came to power under President Samora Machel. Within five years the
government faced armed opposition from the Resistencia Nacional deMocambique
(RENAMO). This ledto abitter civilwar, which only came to anend in 1992with the
signing ofthe Rome Accord. General elections were held inDecember 1999. This isa
long and complex history of socio-political development, war and change, leading to a
disturbing situation bythe end ofthe 20th century, where half the population isunder
twenty years of age. (see Cravinho inAfrica South ofthe Sahara 2000, pp. 746-753).
The impact ofthis on forms on economic, political, social and cultural structures must
be profound.
The Schauffer collection contains two interviews with Mozambicans, the one iswith
Jose de Conerecio and the other with Eldorado Dabula. Conerecio inparticular had
severe problems communicating inEnglish, though Dabula was agreat deal more
confident inhisuse ofthe language. While no interview was done with him, one name
stands out particularly clearly inallthe material -that ofLindo Lhongo. His plays Os
noivos ouonferencia dramatica sobre 0lobolo and Astrinta mulheres deMuzelini
apparently challenged colonial ideology and emphasised the renewal and re-evaluation
ofAfrican culture. Inthe light ofefforts inSouth Africa to identify with, and to
promote the concept and spirit ofthe African Renaissance, itseems that itmay be
advisable for usto study the work ofLhongo, alongside that ofwriters such as
Ribeiro, Antonio Francisco, and Joao Fumane. Another playwright of interest is
Olando Mendes, whose plays were used as agit-prop material byformer Portuguese
169
government (e.g. One Minute of Silence). The names of Pedro Paulo Pereira and A.
Marques also appear in connection with children's theatre.
A number of theatre organizations also seem to be worth following up. These include
the Workers Collective (with plays such as 0 destino inimigo do povo -Destiny:
Enemy of the People), Grupo Cenico dasForcas Populares deLibertacao de
Mocambique, the students at the University Eduardo Mondlane, who also produced a
number of workers' plays and many Cuban and Brazilian voluntary workers, whose
dramatic activities have not been documented yet.
Though the state has a formal Minister of Culture, Youth and Sports (at the time of
writing it is Jose Mateus Mauria Katupha, with offices at Avida Patrice Lumumba
1217, CP 1742, Maputo), the theatre system in Mozambique still needs to be
described. Matters that must be investigated include state funding policies for the Arts,
the existence of a State Theatre, formal training institutions, an actor's union, and the
range of the main theatre companies and the fringe companies. And, of course the
interrelationship between politics, social issues and theatre have to be explored - in the
plays, the theatres and the audiences.
170
Chapter Seven
Conclusion.
This thesis set out to outline something ofthe variety of theatrical and performance
output generated in Africa, South of the Zambezi, and to identify some common
and/or divergent cultural influences inthe works of selected black Mrican dramatists
inthe southern sub-continent of Mrica. As expected, one such common denominator
was the oral tradition, the other was the colonial heritage ofwestern, Eurocentric
theatre and literary practices. The dynamic between these traditions proved to be a
point of some interest, but also aproblem, as will be shown below. Another major
factor in many of the countries has proven to be the lack of a strong theatrical
infrastructure and divergent audience expectations, which in many countries has led to
a proliferation of non-formal and applied theatre processes (e.g. in political theatre,
popular theatre, community theatre, theatre for development, etc) and which pose
their own methodological problems.
In the final analysis, given the restraints outlined in Chapter 1as well as sections of
the various chapters, the study could merely look at some interesting but selected
authors, who in their works seem to illustrate some ofthe variety and energy ofthe
widely dispersed region. Hopefully it also provided afew broad indications of
important trends. Finally, and most importantly perhaps, Ibelieve we did identify a
number of areas for future research. It would seem to me that, besides atremendous
need to do considerably more work on the collection and archiving of data on theatre
171
and performance systems, practitioners and practice in Southern Africa, there are at
least three additional areas of research that require particular attention.
Methodology
Perhaps the most critical insight that has emerged from this study has been the
immense need for a manageable and reliable methodology for the collection, analysis
and assessment of the data and materials in theatre research within the multilingual,
multicultural, heterogeneous context of the African continent. In a paper delivered to
the Consortium of Human Sciences Societies ofSouth Africa (COHSSSS) on the 10th
of November 1994, Dennis Schauffer points out that the etymology of the word
"research" is re-search ... to examine anew. The word is derived from the French
recherche and the etymology ofthe French word is 'to seek again'. He gives the
example of a black African dancer creating a dance mask - not for sale as airport art
but actual use in traditional dance ritual and created in the traditional way. The dancer
undertakes 'research' into natural materials, which are sought, selected, experimented
with, and finally crafted into a finished product which can be worn. He continues:
In ritual terms, the dancer is the medium through which the spirit of the dance
achieves its visual manifestation in the mask, and conversely, the dancers, by
subsuming themselves within the mask and costumes, become the spirit. Having
participated in the dance ritual, the dancer then traditionally throws the mask
away. For the dancer the mask has no value or relevance outside the context of
the ritual performances, and when the ritual was performed again a new mask
would be crafted, as the act of creating the dance mask and the performance of
the dance were not perceived to be separate activities but part of a continuum of
a ritual act.
(Schauffer, D. 1994)
172
Taken together with the etymology of the word 'research', Schauffer concludes:
... the Yoruba dance/artist, in a continuing attempt to create the visual
embodiment of the spirit ofthe dance, through experimentation with wood,
fibres, earth oxides, shells, hide, feathers, carving, painting, and construction
techniques, etc., came agood deal closer to the meaning of research ... than
most ofthe profound theses caped, gowned and papered inthe universities of
this world
(Schauffer, D. 1994)
It isthe person of Western European mindset, he pointed out, who gathers the mask
from the African dust, studies it, photographs it, labels it, compares itwith other
masks and puts it in aglass case in a museum. In other words the Western researcher
commodifies the mask and accords to it avalue separate from that ofthe ephemeral
act ofritual for which it was created. Finally, Schauffer asserts, the researcher 'writes
or PRINTS the findings, which we then regard as research.' (Schauffer, D. 1994)
The fundamental problem identified here has become a matter of intense debate
throughout the world today (see for example the work ofthe so-called PARIP project
-Practice as Research in Performance - atBristol University inEngland and the
Working Group of the International Federation for Theatre Research onPerformance
as Research).
In large measure the dilemma posed by Schauffer confronted the project described in
this thesis. A researcher with a self-declared Eurocentric mindset (Schauffer) has gone
out and plucked from the metaphoric dust ofthe sub-continent anumber oftheatre
173
'artefacts' or products of the theatrical process, he recorded the testimony of artists
and dramatists and photographed them. At this stage the second researcher and the
author ofthis study became part of the process, but she was also a researcher of self-
declared Eurocentric mind set, who has taken on the role of the curator - i.e. gathering
up the threads of the material, 'labelling' it, comparing it, and finally writing up and
printing the findings in display cases called 'chapters'.
Within such a process the attempt to triangulate data from different sources, or from
different perspectives, (a process labelled 'quadulation' in Chapter 1) seems in
retrospect no more than an intellectual exercise in naming the strands to be woven
together in a larger web, but the exercise remains essentially the product of a
Eurocentric mind set. Yet, given the circumstances, how could it possibly be
otherwise? So, the problem of assessment remains. All we can do is to remain ever
aware of the fact that there is an unresolved issue involved and to be conscious of the
dangers of not taking this into account when we attempt to draw conclusions.
The foregoing issue can perhaps be illustrated with a concrete example from the
study. It is a case where I feel that I have erred, along with many others perhaps. In
my approach to the recent work ofMbongeni Ngema, I have judged the works (=
plays) very much in accordance with western, Eurocentric standards and formal
western notions of the art of the theatre. Because this ignored (or is oblivious of)
contextual issues and traditions, this led me to criticise the repetitive nature of the
dialogue, the frontally of performance, the use of stereotype in the characterisation,
the gratuitous introduction of dances, the Kente-like boldness of delivery with
exaggeration of fixed facial expression, and the tendency for constant revision of the
174
presentation even after opening night. The problem is compounded by the fact the
musicals are presented in well-equipped Eurocentric theatre venues and use all the
technical facilities available. Ngema can even incorporate the Natal Philharmonic
Orchestra into his performances.
While it is hard to sit in such an environment and set aside Eurocentric expectations, a
consciousness of the dynamics of the situation nevertheless may leave the door just
open sufficiently for an alternative reading of the situation to emerge. The constant
revisions, excisions, introduction of new material, and extension of existing material
for example, could be seen to be close to the 're-searching' that Schauffer refers to
above. As far as the performance style is concerned, are the so-called 'objections' that
I raise here not also to be levelled at most successful Broadway musicals?
Recently Ngema became very well known through the scandal surrounding the
awarding of a contract to him, involving millions of rand, to create an AIDS
awareness production Sarafina 2. Criticism still rages over this production and legal
proceedings are still continuing. Ngema has even become a cartoon figure in the
series Madam and Eve. But looked at from another perspective the idea of
incorporating an AIDS awareness message into materials that had already proved to
be popular with the same target audience that the Ministry of Health was concerned to
reach, was not without merit. It is frankly debatable whether all that much of a fuss
would have been made of this production had there not been so much money
involved, and if there were not so many other theatre groups and community theatre
collectives struggling to survive in a very tough economic climate.
175
Whilst township musicals could incorporate sociallyrelevant materials, aswas seen
earlierwhen Kente's TooLatewasdiscussed, thefocus forthetarget audience was
stilluponthemusic andthedance spectacle. Escapist entertainment andserious
messaging make strange anduneasy bedfellows. Critics ofthe Sarafina production
(myself included) looked forwell-researched, sociologically pertinent material ina
production whose primary focuswasupontheAIDS pandemic anditsrepercussions.
Naturally wecame awaydisappointed, because wearelooking hereataformwhich
cannot support exclusive focusupon suchcontent. Without wishing toextendthe
debate onthemerits ordemerits ofNgema musical, Iwould havethought thatit
wouldhavebeen logical tocritique thisasamusical anddance extravaganza firstand
foremost, withthebitter pillofthemessage about AIDSglossed overwithlively
spectacle andcommercially exploitable music. Formethentheissuenowresides
within theambit oftheformandcontent debate.
Itisunfortunate thatthiswhole issuehasbeen appropriated bythose who, onemaybe
forgiven forthinking, might haveother agendas. Ithasfrequently beenpointed outin
thepressthatmanyofthose whoweremostvocalintheir criticism ofMbongeni's
production andoftheMinistry ofHealth forsupporting it,hadnotactually seenthe
production. Thecriticism wastherefore notsomuchoftheproduction asamusical,
butwasbased instead upon funding issues, tendering procedures, AIDS content and
soon.Even ifonemoved from suchconcerns tothose ofdramatic criticism, one
would stillhavetoreach agreement ontheparameters ofjudgement fortownship type
musicals - however removed suchproductions mightbefromtownship performance
conditions.
176
It is also ironic to note that in western Eurocentric material 'the musical' is an
accepted form that does not seem to carry with it the expectation of highly relevant
social or political content. . Broadway musicals also have their share of stereotypes
and caricatures, yet audiences and critics seem to be able to take all this in their stride.
When I now reflect on the criticism against the lack of pertinent messaging in
Sarafina, I cannot help but think of reductio ad absurdum that was involved in
transposing Shaw's Pygmalion into the popular musical My Fair Lady. Shaw's play,
written in the style of social realism, contained a challenging critique of social class
attitudes, and of the social class structure in England. Lerner and Loewe converted
this into a musical with memorable songs, spectacular settings, and numerous dance
sequences.
In the social realist drama Pygmalion, Shaw presents an ending, which sees Eliza, the
female lead role, rise gloriously above her class and her station in life. Towards the
end of the play she asserts herself in no uncertain terms:
... Dh, when I think of myself crawling under your feet and being trampled on
and called names, when all the time I had only to lift up my finger to be as good
as you, I could just kick myself
(Shaw, B., 1946. P.l38)
Eliza rejects Higgins's (Professor Higgins, her speech tutor) vision of a future 'you
and I Pickering will be three old bachelors instead of only two men and a silly girl'
(Shaw, B., 1946. P.l39). She leaves to set up her own speech training enterprise and
to marry Freddy, leaving Higgins roaring in derisive laughter at the whole situation.
177
Compare this with the ending to My Fair Lady where in very short final scene the
ending is transformed into a sentimental happy ending - appropriate of course for the
Hollywood musical form:
Eliza: (gently) I washed my face and hands before I come. I did. (Higgins
straightens up. If he could but let himself, he would run to her. Instead, he leans
back with contented sigh pushing his hat forward till it almost covers his face)
Higgins: (softly) Eliza? Where the devil are my slippers? (There are Tears in
Eliza's eyes. Sheunderstands.)
The curtain falls slowly
(Lerner, AJ. 1956. P.128)
This example drawn from the Eurocentric and the British musical theatre tradition
demonstrates the fact that the form of apresentation can most materially affect the
content. Shaw's scathing critique ofBritish society based upon class attitudes and
upon male chauvinist attitudes isentirely expunged bythe saccharine sentimentality
ofthe concluding moments ofLerner's musical.
One ofthe difficulties then isthat critique and assessment ofwork byNgema, Kente
and others must be based onjudgements relative to the form ofthe presentation.
When that from does not liewithin the Eurocentric paradigm, parameters for
judgement should likewise move beyond those ofthe Eurocentric paradigm. 'To
what?' remains the question for those of aEurocentric mindset. In vain one turns to
the excellent and thorough diagram on Theatre asa system ofprocesses (See
Appendix 1)presented by Temple Hauptfleisch for some kind of guidance. Where is
the system of processes that moves beyond the Eurocentric paradigm? Perhaps the
178
system of processes is universally applicable to all conceivable forms of theatre,
including the Afrocentric.
On present evidence one can conclude that the majority of Black African Dramatists
south of the Zambezi acknowledge early influences of story telling and of other forms
of dramatic presentation in the oral tradition such as performance poetry, and praise
singing. On the other hand it cannot be denied that the influence of western theatre
and western presentational techniques extend from the most sophisticated formal
theatre presentations to the simple forms of rural, donor-driven community theatre
throughout the sub-continent.
The evidence also suggests that major developments appear to be on the brink of
realisation. The need for unions has now emerged with the increase in local/national
television production and, with the setting up of theatre unions, the commercial basis
of the art will come in focus. Governments will no longer be dealing with individuals
or with specific organisations but with a mandated collective that can represent the
concern of theatre practitioners nationally and internationally.
Exchange of expertise
One of the remarkable facets discovered by the study is the extent to which
playwrights working in a particular country were often from elsewhere, and that cross
fertilization of experience and training seems to be on the increase in the region. In
Namibia, Botswana, and Lesotho for example theatrical development has relied
largely upon the intervention of persons of colour from outside of the country in
179
question. In Namibia Frederick Philander has had an enormous influence on theatre in
that country, and he is originally from the Cape. In Lesotho Tjotjela mor'a Moshapela
was from Natal, South Africa, and Sonny Sampson-akpan is from Nigeria. In
Botswana Dr. Fannie-Kayode Osazuwa Omoregie is also from Nigeria. Various
initiatives from South Africa played their role too in developing theatre in the sub-
continent. Prominent amongst these groups has been theMarket Theatre Laboratory,
and Theatrefor Africa.
A national database
Of all the issues and concerns that have arisen during the course of this investigation,
none is more pressing than the need for urgent follow-up in a number of areas, not
only to fill in the gaps, or to extend the study, but also to monitor the exciting
developments as they unfold in the region. The constant revisiting of the study would
certainly honour the spirit of're-search' and, who can tell, this process may actually
lead eventually to the discovery of an answer to the troublesome question of
assessment methodology. In the interim, whilst the debate continues as to how to label
the material, what labels to use, what the label means, whether labels should be used
at all, etc. at the very least the artefacts and records should be gathered and preserved
before they are lost forever. And if this is very Eurocentric, linear approach, then so
be it. The alternative is for the record of much of the exciting and vibrant theatrical
activities in the sub-continent to disappear irretrievably, whilst the most astute minds
of very able researchers squabble over how to handle such material. Schauffer has
started to gather a few artefacts and has begun the record-keeping process. It is a
process that urgently needs to be followed up, expanded and documented. Indeed a
180
J
national data centre, where access may be had to the interviews, tapes, films and
photographs gathered by researchers such as Schauffer, Larlham, Ian Steadman,
David Coplan, Eckhard Breitinger, and many others has become an absolutely critical
lssue.
Concluding remarks
In this thesis I have experimented with a few labels and I have tried to tease out a few
of the major gaps in our knowledge of the field, gaps that now beg to be addressed in
a follow-up studies. I have even attempted, perhaps rashly, to subject the material to
an initial assessment. How successful this has been must remain in doubt for as long
as it takes to find a better methodology. Culture is not a static phenomenon, and
theatre is part of the dynamic process of cultural evolution and change. No study of
theatre, drama, or performance can ever, in consequence, be definitive. This thesis
then can be regard as work-in-progress and, it is suggested, this is as it always should
be.
NOTES TO CHAPTER SEVEN
1 The following table examines the similarities between the Colway and the Southern African
forms of Community theatre.
COLWAY
Presented in promenade (open-air).
Presented free of charge to the community
Uses large numbers of amateur performers
with professional facilitators who also take
part in the show.
SOUTHERN AFRICAN
Many open-air presentations.
Presented free of charge to the community.
Uses large numbers of amateur
performers and the skills of at least one
professional facilitator.
181
J
The request for the intervention of this
particular kind of theatre in the lives of
a community must come, in the fIrst
instance from that community.
A full-time play officer is appointed
for each production.
Proposal writing for funding is essential.
The content is of direct relevance to the
target the audience.
The play officer is obliged to
live in the community for at least
six months.
The play officer and all professionals
involved on the production side offer
regular workshops.
The work actively involves the entire
community, young or old.
Workshopping is the approach.
Requests sometimes come from
the community but dmma intervention
is also proposed as a means of
addressing specillc problems of a medical,
social and political nature.
A team of performer/facilitators is sent
into a community for a collaborative
intervention.
Proposal writing for funding is essential.
Community theatre can hand back to
ordinary people the means through which
issues of relevance to themselves and their
communities may be articulated and
explored.
The team of performers/facilitators
spends on average six weeks in the
community for which the performance is
intended.
Volunteers from the local community
come in to be trained by the
professional facilitators in aworkshop
situation.
The work actively involves the entire
community young or old.
Workshopping is the approach.
On the other hand there are some important differences that also need highlighting. The following
table examines dissimilarities:
COLWAY
The CTT (Colway Theatre Trost)
work has promoted new writing.
Intervention funded by British Council.
The work is presented only in English.
The approach is well researched and
and well represented in the broadcast
media (e.g. BBC-2).1
SOUTHERN AFRICAN
Community theatre, as we have seen
above, puts the emphasis upon the
voice and upon the movement -not
upon the printed word. Scripts are
used for fundmising and promotion.
Whilst government agencies do
provide the funding base for some
of the exercises, the majority of the
money comes from sympathetic
foreign donors through embassy
contacts.
The work is presented in local
languages.
the approach in the region is under-
researched and has not received much
exposure in the broadcast media.
The above compamtive charts are drawn up using Schauffer's analysis of the approach to community
theatre pmctice in the African sub-continent on the one hand, and the report on community theatre
182
presented by Peter Reynolds in a chapter entitled Community Theatre: Carnival or Camp? in The
Politics of Theatre edited by Graham Holderness).
2 The difference between 'community theatre" and 'Theatre for Development' is made clear for
us by Zakes Mda when he quotes from a dialogue that took place between David Kerr, Stephen
Chifunyise, and Andrew Hom during the 1985 International Conference on Theatre for
Development in Maseru. Hom, he says, contends that plays presented as 'theatre for
development' in the end come up with solutions. So as Mda goes on to say, the performances
are
,... message-orientated and exhortatory rather than focusing on a process of community analysis
and decision-making' (Mda, Z., 1993, p.104) 'Popular Theatre' is a term that David Kerr
introduced into the lexicon of descriptive labels currently in use in studies of African popular
culture .. The term has wide application and covers both pre-colonial and post-colonial theatrical
expression, which is broadly popular with black African audiences - as distinct from theatrical
works that are peculiarly part of the Eurocentric, paradigm. Though in South Africa in the 1970-
1980 period, the term also had a political use, see Steadman 1984 for example. See also the
interesting ideas proposed by Tim Prentki and 1. Selman in Popular Theatre in Political Culture
(2000).
183
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS ANDARTICLES
Africa South ofthe Sahara 2000, 29th Edition, Europa Publications.
Ani, M.: 1994. Yurugu: An African - centered critique of European Cultural
thought and Behaviour, New Jersey, Africa World Press.
Armstrong, R.: 1984. Wellspring: On the Myth and Source of Culture, (missing
reference)
Blau, H: 1990. The Audience, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press.
Bloom. H: 1961. King Kong: An African Jazz Opera, London, Collins.
Banham, M., Hill, E. and Woodyard, G. (Eds): 1994. The Cambridge Guide to
African and Caribbean Theatre. Great Britain. c.u.P.
Carlson, Marvin.: 1996. Performance: A Critical Introduction, New York,
Routledge.
Campbell, P.: 1999. Analysing Performance, Manchester, Manchester Univ. Press.
Cooper, B.: 1998. Magical Realism in west African Fiction. London, Routledge.
Coplan, David. 1985. In Township Tonight! South Africa's Black City Music and
Theatre. Johannesburg: Ravan Press/London: Longman.
Couzens, Tim. 1985. The New African: A Study ofthe Life and Work ofD.I.E.
Dhlomo. Johannesburg: Ravan Press.
Crow, B.: 1996. An Introduction to Post-colonial Theatre.
Davis, G.Y. and Fuch, A: 1996. Theatre and Change in South Africa. The
Netherlands, Harwood.
Davis, G.Y.: 1997. Beyond the Echoes of Soweto, Five plays by Matsemela
Manaka, The Netherlands, Harwood.
Duggan, C.: 2000. Strategies in Staging: Theatre technique inthe plays ofZakes Mda,
inAfrican Theatre in Development, ed.Banham. M, Gibbs. J, and Osofisan, F.
184
Dunton, c.: 1998. Nigerian Theatre in English: A Critical Bibliography, Munich,
Hans Zell Publishers.
Farb, P.: 1973. Word Play, New York, Knopf
Flockemann, Miki. 1991. Gcina Mhlope' sHave You Seen Zandile? :English or
english? The situation ofdrama inliterature and language departments inthe
emergent post-Apartheid South Africa. In: South African Theatre Journal, 5/2
September, pp. 40-54
Gerard, A: 1971. Four African Literatures, Berkeley, University ofCalifornia Press.
Gray, Stephen. 1990. Women in South African Theatre In South African Theatre
Journal. 4/1 May, pp. 75-87.
Hauptfleisch, Temple. 1997a. South Africa inDon Rubin (Ed) The World
Encyclopedia of Contemporary Theatre Vol.3. London: Routledge.
Hauptfleisch, Temple. 1997b. Theatre.and Society in South Africa: Reflections in
a Fractured Mirror. Pretoria: lL. van Schaik.
Hauptfleisch, Temple and Steadman, Ian. 1984. South African Theatre: Four Plays
and an Introduction. Pretoria: HAUM Educationall Macmillan.
Holderness, G. (Ed): 1992. The Politics of Theatre and Drama, London,
Macmillan.
Hutchison, Y and Omotoso, K.(Eds): 1995. Open Space: Six Contemporary Plays
from Africa, Cape Town, Kagiso.
Hutchison, Y: 1999. Memory isa Weapon: The uses ofHistory and Myth in
selected post - 1960 Kenyan, Nigerian and South African Plays, Unpublished
D.Phil thesis, University of Stellenbosch.
Jordan G, and Weedon C, 1998. Cultural Politics, Class, Gender, Race and the
Postmodern World, Oxford, Blackwell.
Kaschula, R.ll.: 1993. Foundations in Southern African Oral Literature,
Johannesburg, Univ. ofWits.
Kavanagh, R.M.: 1985. Theatre and Cultural Struggle in South Africa, London,
Zed Books.
Kente, Gibson. 1981. Too Late In: South African People's Plays. Johannesburg: Ad
Donker.
Kente, Gibson. Can You Take It? Working script held inthe Department ofDrama,
University ofZululand (while the Department was still inexistence).
185
Koneya, M and Barbour, A.: 1976. Louder than Words. Nonverbal
Communication, Columbus, Merrill.
Kruger, L: 1999. The Drama of South Africa: plays, pageants and publics since
1910, London, Routledge.
Larlham, P.: 1985. Black Theatre Dance and Ritual in South Africa, Ann Arbor:
UMI Research Press.
Loots, Lliane: 1996. "The Personal isPolitical" -Gender inthe Context ofApartheid
South Africa: ALook AtTwo Women Playwrights inSouth African Theatre
Journal, 10/1May, pp. 63-70.
Manaka, Matsemela: (Undated). Ekhaya -Going Home, Orlando, Blues Africa
Productions.
Maponya, Maishe.: 1995. Doing Plays for a Change, Johannesburg, Witwatersrand
University Press.
Mbele, M.: 1989. Putting People First, Tribune, November.
Mda, Zakes.: 1986. We shall Sing for the Fatherland, and other Plays,
Johannesburg, Ravan Press.
Mda Zakes.: 1993a. And the Girls in their Sunday Dresses, Four Works.
Johannesburg, W.U.P.
Mda, Zakes.: 1993b. When People play People, Johannesburg, Wits University
Press.
Mda. Z.: 1996. Four Plays, Florida Hills, Vivlia.
Mehrabian, A.: 1971. Silent Messages, Belmont, Wadsworth.
Mhlophe, G.: 1988. Have you seen Zandile? Johannesburg, Skotaville.
Mutwa Credo 1974/5. Umlinganiso - The Living Imitation. In: S'ketsh: 30-32. Get
reference!! !
Naidoo, V. 1997. Interview with Zakes Mda inAlternation 4.1.1
Ndebele, N.N.T.: 1941. Ugubudele Namazimuzimu, Johannesburg, Wits Univ.
Press.
Ngema, M.: 1995. The Best ofMbongeni Ngema: The Man and his Music,
Johannesburg, Skotaville.
Orkin, M.: 1991. Drama and the South African State, Manchester, Manchester
Univ. Press.
186
Peat, F.D.: 1996. Blackfoot Physics: A Journey into the Native American
Universe, London, Fourth Estate.
Perkins, K.A.: (Eds): 1999. Black South African Women: An Anthology of Plays,
Cape Town, Univ. of Cape Town Press.
Philander, Frederick. 1990. The Curse, a four-act play on the Namibian Struggle,
Johannesburg, Skotaville.
Philander, Frederick. 1997. Die Railway Man en Koning van die Ashop, Pretoria,
Makro Boeke.
Pillay, Kriben. 1998. Nondualism: A Theoretical and Experiential Perspective for
the Practice of Educational Drama and Theatre. Unpublisehd PhD Thesis,
University of Durban Westville.
Prentki, T. and Selman, 1.2000. Popular Theatre in Political Culture. Great
Britain, Intellect Books.
Reynolds, P.: 1992. Community Theatre: Carnival or Camp? in The Politics of
Theatre and Drama (Ed. Holderness, G) London, Macmillan.
Ronge. Barry. 1989. Review of MatsemelaManaka's Goree. In: Sunday Times
Magazine 19February. p. 5.
Rubin, Don. (Ed) 1997. The World Encyclopedia of Contemporary Theatre
Vol.3. London: Routledge
Sampson-akpan, S.: 1985. Found and Lost Uyo, Modern Business Press.
Sampson-akpan, S.: 1986. Mfon (revised edition). Uyo, Modern Business Press.
Sampson-akpan, S.: 1990. Comments in Two Experimental Plays, Uyo, Modern
Business Press.
Schauffer, Dennis: 1995. The Issue ofInter and Intra-Culturalism in the S.A. Theatre,
ADDSA/SAADYT. UBUNTU Conference Journal Vol. 15,NO.2 (Summer)
Schauffer, Dennis. 1996a. Can Blue Men Sing the Whites? in SAADYT/ADDSA
Journal. Vol. 16.NO.2 Autumn, p59
Schauffer, Dennis. 1996b. It doesn't matter ifyou're Black or White Unpublished
paper delivered at the IFTR/FIRT Conference, Tel Aviv.
Schauffer. D.S. and Raghunath. M.: 1999. Zakes Mda Profile, Univ. Durban-
Westville, Asoka Theatre Profile Series.
Shapiro, 1.G.: 1968. Responsivity to Facial and Linguistic Cues in Journal of
Communication 18.
187
Sienaert, E., Bell, N., and Lewis, M.: (eds) 1991. Oral Traditions and Innovations:
New Wines in Old Bottles? In Catching Winged Words: Oral Tradition and
Education. Durban: University of Natal Oral Documentation and Research Centre.
Solberg, R.: 1999. Alternative theatre in South Africa, Pietermaritzburg,
University of Natal Press.
Solomon, E.: 193/34. The Arts in South Africa, Durban, Knox Printing and
Publishing Co.
Southern, Richard. 1977. SevenAgesofTheatre. London: Faber and Faber.
Steadman, I.P.: 1985. Drama and social Consciousness: Themes in Black Theatre
on the Witwatersrand until 1984, Unpublished thesis, University of Witwatersrand.
Steadman, I.: 1985b. The Other Face In: Index to Censorship 14 (1) :26-30.
Steadman, Ian. 1992. Performance and Politics: Process and Practices of
Representation in South African Theatre. In: Theatre Survey 33 (2): 188-210.
Steadman, Ian. 1995. Introduction In: Maponya, Doing Plays for Change.
Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press.
Whorf, B.L.:1940. In Macoby, E.E, et al: Readings in Social
Psychology, New York, Holt, Rienhart and Winston Inc., 1958.
WEBSITES
American Association of Community Theatre (WWW_d!~_9-LQ.f,g)
Katz Jerry: Nondual salon FAQ (www.nonduality.com)
SADC 2000 Review = The Official SADC Trade, Industry and Investment
Review 2000, Southern African Marketing Co. (Pty) Ltd. ~Ji_~g_C;;r~yj_~F,_9-.Qm.
188
APPENDIX 1.
APPENDIX 2.
APPENDIX 3.
APPENDIX 4.
APPENDIX 5.
?.
APPENDICES.
Black Mrican Dramatists: AnInterim Report
Diagram ofTheatre asa System ofProcesses.
Interview with Gcina Mhlophe.
Interview with Gibson Kente.
Interview with Matsemela Manaka
189
APPENDIX 1
Black African Dramatists: An Interim Report
byDennis Schauffer
Introduction
Some 16years ago I became the professor of what was then known as the Department
of Speech &Drama at the University of Durban-Westville. At that time the University
was still part of the segregated South Mrica of the Apartheid era and had been set up
to cater for the needs of higher education in the Indian community. Whilst I was
aware of the rich tradition of religious dance-drama, popular local farce-drama, and of
protest theatre in the Indian community, I became aware of the fact that little or
nothing had been written on the subject of South African Indian theatre. My first
research project at UD.W. was therefore set up to investigate this neglected area of
theatre studies. My approach was to use three categories of material:
1) Such hard-copy records of production work and related material
that still existed, such as the handwritten playscripts inHindi in
the archives of the Aryan Benevolent Home dating from 1916,
the notes in pencil of a participant in the Krishna Shah
workshops that he gave at the time of the Union Artists
production of Tagore's King of the Dark Chamber, in 1961,
press reviews, articles, programmes etc.
2) Interviews with theatre practitioners in the Indian community.
3) Theoretical works on Indian culture and performance traditions.
Of all of the above sources of information the direct person-to-person interviews with
theatre practitioners proved to be, without a doubt, the most significant.
This information led to the production of a paper that was delivered as my inaugural
lecture entitled In the shadow of the Shah (13 Sept. 1990) and the material was re-
worked for publication in the South Mrican Theatre Journal vol. 6, no. 2, Sept. 1992,
under the title The South African Indian Contribution to the Developing Concept of
an Indigenous South Mrican Theatre. The importance of the above to the research
into black African dramatists south of the Zambezi rests upon the fact that my
approach to acquisition and methodology of analysis of fieldwork material has been
influenced by this to a significant extent. I remain convinced of the overwhelming
efficacy of the direct one-to-one live interview approach with theatre practitioners,
preferably in the environment of their production work.
The Black Dramatists Project
The aims
190
Asthe University ofDurban-Westville began the process oftransformation towards
democratic governance, re-curriculation ofcourse offerings occurred that placed
greater emphasis upon South Mrican theatre inthe Drama syllabus. Itwas then that I
discovered that there was comparatively little material inprint that paid significant
attention to black Mrican dramatists inSouth Africa andthat there was, atthat time,
hardly any material available on dramatists ofany kind incountries such asNamibia,
Lesotho, Swaziland, Botswana, etc. Consequently I setup aresearch project to
investigate the history and extent ofblack Mrican dramaturgy inthe sub-continent.
The research questions were very basic:
a) Who arethe black Mrican dramatists inthe sub-continent?
b) To what extent dothey perceive indebtedness tothe oral tradition intheir
work?
c) How many oftheir works have been published?
d) How many oftheir works are accessible inhard copy or onvideo?
e) What arethe biographic details of each dramatist and how does this record of
past influences impact upon the works?
The pilot fieldwork project
Because ofmy need to conduct face-to-face interviews with the subjects of my
investigation Ibegan with interviews ofblack South African dramatists asthe most
cost effective start tothe inquiry. The ultimate intention was to publish research
findings, claim research reward monies through the University and to use these funds
to extend the research into neighboring territories. Interviews with twenty black
African dramatists were conducted and a Theatre Profile Series was setup aspart of
Asoka Theatre Publications (aresearch publication outlet setupbythe Dept. Drama
UD.W. under the general editorship ofKriben Pillay)
The first profile was onZakes Mda and was published inNovember 1999, further
publications were inpreparation, and alistofdramatists tothe North was being
compiled when the University, inits infinite wisdom, shut the departments ofDrama,
Fine Art, Music, Romance languages and Indian languages inline with its declared
intention ofde-emphasizing the Arts andHumanities infavour of Science and
Technology. It seemed that the entire research project and itsholdings were
effectively to be mothballed indefinitely.
Follow up fieldwork
By afortunate coincidence apost graduate student, Ms. Celeste Litkie, had become
interested inpursuing aDoctorate inthe same area of study. Unfortunmately her
personal circumstances precluded her from traveling to neighbouring territories to
undertake the fieldwork herself, but fortunately we were able to obtain funding for
her, which allowed meto continue myfieldwork. Inexchange she gained first access
both to the South African material Ihad already collected, andtothe new material
which Igathered inNamibia, Botswana, andLesotho.
There were however, anumber of specific problems relating tothe fieldwork insome
areas.
191
It was for example unfortunate that the political climate in Zimbabwe had deteriorated
sharply by then and was not conducive to a white male researcher and his young
Indian female research assistant traveling through Zimbabwe conducting interviews
with dramatists, many of whom were allied with the opposition political movements.
On the other hand, working in Mozambique would have required the services of a
Portuguese translator and when this was costed out, it became obvious that this part of
the exercise would not fit within the constraints of a fast-dwindling budget. The
pragmatic solution to the problem was to limit the study to works in English.
It so happened that a conference was being organised in Maseru on 19th to 22nd June
2000, in order to approve the constitution of the newly formed SATI (Southern
African Theatre Initiative). I was most fortunate to be granted observer status at the
committee meetings and as the only white African present I felt most honoured. To
this conference came delegates from Mozambique, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zimbabwe,
Madagascar, Zambia, Malawi, Botswana, Namibia, and of course South Africa. I
made full use of the opportunity to record interviews with delegates I had not already
interviewed in Namibia, South Africa, Botswana, and Lesotho.
Initial assessment of methodology and data
Having collected a sizeable quantity of research material, I found myself not only
having to transcribe many hours of interviews recorded on video and sound tape, but
also to revise my assessment methodology. The value of face-to-face interviews
revealed itself in the way in which issues, questions, and problems surfaced that I
could not possibly have anticipated had I been sitting at home making use of books,
the internet, and the telephone. What became very apparent was that the material I had
collected, however bulky it seemed to be, was in fact insufficient to answer the key
questions with any degree of effectiveness, because other factors had entered into the
research equation which now require urgent follow-up studies in the following areas:
1) The effect of the introduction of local television channels on the concept of
dramaturgy. Television is a hungry medium and a new market for
scriptwriting is opening up. Will this destroy the nascent theatrical
dramaturgy of the region?
2) The problem of the sustainability of donor-driven theatrical activity in the
sub-continent.
3) The need for a non-Eurocentric assessment methodology for works that
derive from an Afrocentric paradigm. Some video recordings and written
records of scripts of Community theatre work in various African languages
are a case in point. These have been generated for submission to donors as a
means of accounting for donations and in some instances they have been
translated somewhat ineptly into English to make them accessible to foreign
funding agencies. They remain however videographic or literary records of
dramatic presentations.
4) The dilemma ofresearcher's access to the cultural property of African
communities and the ethics of research enterprise in Africa. Theatre
researchers now require a permit to undertake research in Botswana for
example.
192
5) The impact of expatriate Nigerian academics and of north Mrican
dramaturgical traditions on the developing theatrical tradition in some of the
countries neighbouring South Mrica.( e.g. Lesotho, Botswana, and
Swaziland)
6) The issue of inter- and intra-cultural encounters: their potential value and
their negative aspects (e.g. French cultural exchange productions in
Windhoek etc.)
7) The impact of organizations such as SATI, the Market Theatre Laboratory,
Theatre for Africa etc. upon theatrical and dramaturgical development in the
sub-continent.
8) The fundamental problem of access to research funding for fieldwork beyond
the borders of South Africa.
9) The effect of the move towards the establishment oftheatre Unions in some
of the countries under consideration.
10)The effect of the proposed building of a National theatre building in
Gabarone. Will this be created as a clone of a typical Eurocentric proscenium
arch theatre, or will a new, unique Mrocentric physical structure emerge as
was being debated at the time of my visit? What will be the effect of either
choice upon theatre in Botswana and, given the theatre festivals held in
Gabarone to which many groups from neighbouring countries come each
year, upon the region?
The list of items can go on and on.
My initial pilot research project has thus opened up for me a whole world of future
research opportunities that cry out to be tackled. I am gratified that some of my
fieldwork has already been taken further and that Ms.Litkie has progressed well with
the completion of a thesis on the subject.
I look forward to other researchers who may utlise the material collected so far and
undertaking further work in this vast and under-researched area of Southern Mrican
theatre and performance.
Prof Dennis Schauffer.
193
APPENDIX 2.
Diagram ofTheatre as a System ofProcesses
From: Theatre and Society: Reflections inaFractured Mirror byTemple Hauptfleisch
(Pretoria: lL.van Schaik, 1997)
194
Diagram
1
Theatre
as
asystem
of
processes
KEY:
Channel
A
PublicallonChannel
C
(media)
One-way
process
Two-way
process
AprocessAn
artetact
SUPPORTIVE
SYSTEMS:
GENERAL
INFLUENCES:
INFRASTRUCTURES:
TRAINiNGSOCIO-CULTURALSITUATIONTRANSPORT
EXPERIENCESOCIO-POLITICALSITUATIONTELECOMMUNICATIONS
RESEARCHECONOMICSITUATIONENERGY
INFORMATIONHISTORICALINFLUENCESTECHNOLOGY
PROMOTIONREWARDSOCIETALCONVENTIONSINDUSTRY
FEEDBACKSOCIETALSTRUCTURESMEOlA
PUBLICITYLEGALFRAMEWORK
EOUCATIONALSYSTEMS
OEMOGRAPHICPATIERNS
APPENDIX 3
INTERVIEW WITH GCINA MHLOPHE
ByDennis Schauffer
NOTE:
The interviews are printed here as they were initially transcribed. Inevitably
typing and transcription errors, as well as gaps, will occur.
QUESTION: Can you start offby telling us how you originally got involved inthe
theatre?
ANSWER: Igot involved with theatre from the performance ofpraise poetry. Iwas
at ahigh school inthe Eastern Cape when Isaw atraditional praise poet who inspired
meto write my first praise poem.
QUESTION: What high school was that?
ANSWER: Iwas atUmfundi high school and Iwas inspired to write poetry from
having seen that man. Iwas avoracious reader when itcame to reading praise poetry.
Iwas very impressed and my imagination was going berserk trying to imagine what
they were like. And to seethis guyjust touched something inside me and Iwrote my
first poem. And always writing itespecially to perform. And sointhe years that I
was new inJohannesburg Iwas performing poetry sometimes atpolitical rallies, or
some kind ofget -together orwhen poets and other writers gottogether who were part
ofthe Generation. So some ofthem where from Pretoria, Cape Town, Alexander and
Johannesburg, different art groups gottogether andwe performed poetry for long
hours and had lots offun. And sofrom that Igot offered arole for my first theatre
piece from Maishe Maponye play (016-name ofplay invernacular) The Nurse. One
ofthe very first theatre pieces Iever did.
QUESTION: Where about was that?
ANSWER: Atthe Market Theatre first andthen we toured the townships.
QUESTION: Isthere atradition of story telling inyour family?
ANSWER: Oh yes! Ihad awonderful grandmother. Iwas born inHammersdale
near the Valley of aThousand Hills and mygrandmother was really amaster
storyteller. Shetold beautiful stories which are stillvery vivid inmy memory. She
would be sitting on her green chair, telling me stories, using facial expressions, her
hands, her voice changing, and all sorts ofthings. And Iremember that sovividly and
itwas away ofteaching my imagination to fly.
QUESTION: Isthat the Gogo that we meet inHave You SeenZandile?
ANSWER: That the Gogo. That's the one.
196
QUESTION: So you had awhole lot of rich background in traditional storytelling to
start with and then the praise poetry ...?
ANSWER: And then the praise poetry. So those two things combined in one person
where very good indeed.
QUESTION: Yes because both ofthem carried with it a performance element and
the vocal element.
ANSWER: Strangely enough all the years I was at high school mostly I hated my
voice. I used to pray a lot in church that God would make a miracle and I would have
a sweet woman's voice. But God was forever on holiday. But thank goodness that
God was on holiday when I asked for a sweet voice, because when I finally fell in
love with my voice I was very pleased that it had not changed. I've learned to use it
in many ways and now I even write music, I sing most of the songs I do on stage with
the radio programmes of television shows I do, all those songs I write them myself.
And specifically for my voice and that's a pleasure.
QUESTION: After those early days in the Market what happened after that in your
career?
ANSWER: When I performed The Nurse I was still working for Learn & Teach
magazine. I was journalist from Learn & Teach magazine and I thought it was just a
one off-thing. I didn't think I was moving into theatre as such. I was feeling very
comfortable injournalism, because first and foremost I think if you are talking about
my identity I see myself as awriter, first. Much as I love my audiences and have lots
of fun with my audiences but in theatre Ithought it was just a phase. I wasn't going to
stay in theatre it was just one off-things and then I was going to go back to journalism
and I was going to continue writing. And so when I got the next role to play in
Barney Simonis Black Dog it looked like, "0h am I staying?" And the next play
came on and then the next and then I wrote Have You Seen Zandile and I did quite a
lot of work with Theatre. I learned to direct and participate a lot in workshop theatre.
That is something that I am very passionate about. It's something that's very
empowering. Having worked with Barney Simon is something I am very grateful for.
Italk about him as a man who has big breasts. He would breastfeed many people
unselfishly. Barney Simon knew how to help people feel confident, that's a gift that
not every director had. And when you learn to direct you wish that you have at least a
little bit of what Barney Simon taught you.
QUESTION: Have you struggled with the difference between the literary and the
oral tradition in the theatre?
ANSWER: No. It seems to me like the right hand side and the left-hand side and it's
inseparable for me.
QUESTION: So that powerful combination must serve you well as a director, and in
your performance and in your writing? Apart from Have You Seen Zandile what
other published works have you got in your name?
197
~----------------------~ ...??
ANSWER: Iwrote Sandaka in 1989which was about aman who did not want to go
toJohannesburg, about aman who refused to gotothe big city, who wanted to stay in
that very beautiful settings where hewas born inthe Eastern Cape and indeed itwas a
way of looking atthe Eastern Cape through the eye ofthis young man. Sandaka was
aman who really lived when Iwas inmyearly teen and hewas much older than me.
He had apowerful voice heused to sing allby himself walking up and down the
mountains, taking care ofthe cattle. Ididn't know him well but his face was striking
andthat's the strength Ihadto capture inthis play, hisface and his singing voice and
the fact that hewas not taken very seriously interms ofbeing clever or stuff like that.
Ilooked atthe gifts he had, for example, making clothes. In South Africa people talk
ofdressmaking as something that suits onlywomen. He was not going to goto
Johannesburg, hewas making clothes, hewas not exactly clever and when hegot
married he made the dress for hiswife. And hehad avery good bank account!
QUESTION: Was this areality?
ANSWER: Imade up the story but itwas based onthis young man who just loved
his surroundings so much. Iliked that. It's almost like with the migrant labour
system, with alot ofthings that happened during the apartheid years. Itwas like
black people don't deserve to live inbeautiful places Black people can't
appreciate nature you know how they are?
QUESTION: You must have encountered alot ofthat kind ofattitude. Does that
spur you onto kind ofredress this?
ANSWER: Exactly. Iliketo talk about things that Iknow for sure arethe way I've
seen them and experienced them but not inthe way ofpopular knowledge.
QUESTION: Your other characters arethey alldrawn from personal experience?
ANSWER: Quite alot ofmywritings were drawn from personal experiences.
Sometimes even now Idowrite from personal experiences. But when Iwrote Love
Child itwas written atatime when things were dangerously scary inmy mind. Idid
not realize that itwas soscary until I started having the same dream over and over
again. Ihadto look atthis dream and saywhat's going on? AmIgoing mad? Itwas
during the early nineties when Iwrote Love Child. It's aone-woman piece and itis
written instorytelling form at avery political time inavery wonderful place that is
fictitious. Sofor methe things that were happening inthe early nineties everywhere
you looked, every newspaper you read, was black onblack violence onthe Vaal
Triangle. And my hometown Hammersdale, Mpumalangha Township was inthe
news allthe time. And they were going on about the Zulu-Xhosa war. Now Iwas
born from aXhosa speaking mother and aZulu-speaking father and Iknow for afact
that different language groups inthis country love one another. Iwill testify to this
because Iam one ofthose children who were loved children, who were born because
ofthese unions ofpeople who speak different languages from different cultures who
love one another. That iswhy Iwrote Love Child. The reason why Imade ita
fictitious story was to creep inon myaudience; Ilike to dothat sometimes. To creep
inonthe audience, itlooks soplayful and sounimportant andthen ithits them what
I'm trying to say, and itgives me allkinds offreedom aswell. Because I'm not using
alanguage group with which they can identify, I'm nottalking about places that they
198
can really see. And at the same time I like my work to be as universal as possible.
Now I can't pretend to be extra careful and that I always succeed but sometimes I try
to really reach that point of universality.
QUESTION: And in terms of the actual language that you use, is it English?
ANSWER: Yes.
QUESTION: Are there other languages that you use?
ANSWER: I speak Xhosa and Zulu, So I use those two languages very much, When
I'm performing, even if I'm performing in English I have wonderful idioms. I'm a
person who loves idioms. Because I love languages so much I try to include the
languages that I like in idioms and sayings and expressions, even though I'm speaking
English. Because it's so important to capture the flavor of the background of the
story. I think it's very important for me.
QUESTION: Are these idioms spoke in Zulu or Xhosa?
ANSWER: Yes. I say it in the original language. I don't want to lose my audience
but I want them to taste where I'm coming from.
QUESTION: So this multiplicity of registers is useful?
ANSWER: Right. Very much. Very much so. The way I'm using storytelling now
is something that illustrates what I believed but did not know how to put into words.
When I talk about the wonder of the different cultures that exist in South Africa, that
should not be a problem it should be a pleasure. It should be an advantage.
QUESTION: Do you have (135) characters at all?
ANSWER: I do. A lot.
QUESTION: Now that's one from Gogo?
ANSWER: Absolutely it comes from Gogo. To see animals and plants and flowers
and trees and whatever that's very much alive. Having equal status as human beings.
And I think that's a wonderful gift she gave me.
QUESTION: Where do you think you going now if you project yourself into five
years down the road?
ANSWER: I wish to do less traveling and I'm going to speak to some General from
the apartheid years to come and fetch my passport. To come and confiscate the
passport. To do less traveling that's what I wish for. And to work more with the
young people. I think it's a very enjoyable part of my life to work with young people.
I would like to from time to time hop back into theatre, but I can't stay in full time
theatre. Ijust don't belong in theatre. I feel very much at home in storytelling. I used
to say when I was in theatre, (I don't know why I used these words at the time, but I
kept saying) "I don't belong in theatre." Everytime when I was winning awards and
199
getting wonderful write-ups and getting roles left and right and just having a good
time I kept saying, "I donlt belong in theatre. I don't feel right here. I'm flying with
crooked wings. II I kept using that expression. And in 1990 when I left theatre and
moved into full-time storytelling and with a conscious mind to do so, I knew that I'm
straightening up and I'm flying right. And it's a wonderful feeling to know that you're
flying right. So from time to time I visit theatre but I will stay more in storytelling. I
wish to be able to write more as well.
QUESTION: It's interesting that you make the distinction between storytelling and
theatre because in my world I don't differentiate. I regard storytelling as theatre. I
think what we are talking here is a more formal western type of theatre with the stage
and lights and all the trappings of that kind of kind of theatre.
ANSWER: Somehow I don't know if I belong there.
QUESTION: But surely storytelling is very much theatre? It has the common link
with the one-person show. (172) Maybe that's where you fit rather?
ANSWER: Maybe that's where I fit. When I think of guys like AC Jordan the father
of Paulo Jordan he was a novelist and a scholar and a very clever human being, when
I think of the people who were born in that era who went to Lovedale what I read
about those time and what I know about those times I look at it with envy and I think
that I was born too late. I love books, I love words, and I love the whole era. It seems
like it should have been an era where I should have been born. Now when the
situation is been so horrible that people donlt even like education anymore. When
you've got to really reconvince people to want to learn when looking at the
disadvantages in different communities where people don't even have a library.
Where I come from in Hammersdale there is still no library. That is one of my
greatest wishes to be able to one day have a library in Hammersdale. It is one of my
greatest wishes just to know that children can visit a library in their own hometown. I
never saw the inside of a library until I was twenty years old. It was like a world in a
dictionary this thing called a library. And when I saw a library in Orangegrove one of
the suburbs in Johannesburg, my mouth was watering; my imagination was working
overtime, imagining the number of books that must be inside the library. And when I
went in they told me they don't take black people there. I wanted to explain to the
woman that I'm not black, I'm a book lover and I cried because I didn't know how to
say it to her. Of course she was probably doing her job. And she was told not to let
me in. I left and it was a horrible feeling and many children still live in places where
therels still no library. Slowly that is changing and I'm hoping that is going to change
even faster. So when I look at the time we are living in, it's a time when one has got
to really work hard on their career. Being an artist is not about just riding it, it's about
working very hard and trying to better things all the time.
QUESTION: At University we pick up the other end of the story that you are telling
here - of the terrible deprivation of the present education system and the past of
course where the lack of books, lack libraries etc. so we canlt blame our students for a
love of reading. For wanting to be spoon-fed all the time, for wanting notes. That is
not something that we can assume because we know that those students particularly at
our University come from the same background that you describe where the whole
high school might have a hundred books if they are lucky.
200
So we can't actually expect students just to acquire it like that. Do you think that the
storytelling as a performance part could possibly facilitate abetter love for books?
ANSWER: You're going into the wish department again. Ithink there should be
more work put into making books come alive. Television is a very powerful medium
and I don't think it's used half as much as it can be used in terms of being an
educational medium in this country. Ithink there should be a time, a programme even
once a month that focuses seriously, genuinely on books. On making books come
alive, books written by people of our country. Yes South Mrican writers and writers
who write things that touch us. I'm talking now about the playwright who wrote
Death of A Maiden. It's an amazing piece. It's so apt for South Africa. And there are
several other pieces that talk about topics that are so universal that touch us as South
Africans. So what I'm saying is we should focus on South Mrican writers but also we
should look at people who are talking to us; to be able to do storytelling in terms of
making the books come alive, to use the people who have got those skills, to use
drama to make the books come alive, to use all kinds of things to make the books
come alive, to look at poetry, to make poetry into a delicious dish, to be able to taste
words. Words are beautiful and people who have got the gift to write wonderful
poetry should be admired. I wish I had the financial wings to take this concept and
put it on television and insist that once a month there is an important television
programme that focuses on education in a very enjoyable way, in a powerful medium
like television
QUESTION: A difficult question now. Some people would argue that if you had a
programme that dramatized a novel what would then be the motive for those children
to make contact with the book? Would they not use the television recording of it in
the same way that people use comics nowadays to read the great classics? In other
words they use it as a kind of shorthand and not bother about original which maybe
difficult for them.
ANSWER: Ithink there's no way you can present on television all the wonderful
books that have been written, allthe wonderful plays, all the wonderful poetry that
has been written so it would be a way of getting ataste; to inspire that taste because
when you know that reading entails this and you meet people who love reading, who
believe inthe written word, who said it can come alive in this way, you are sending
people straight to the library to go and read. They did not dramatize that one, you
could point out, and it's by the same author. Ithink it's away of inspiring people to
read. I don't think it's a way of saying, "okay we've done it all for you relax now,
burn the libraries, forget it" I would never condone anything like that.
QUESTION: What influences in the theatre or storywriting inspired you?
ANSWER: Well the first one was AC Jordan the novelist who wrote (269-name of
novel) (271-name of poet) he was a poet who wrote in a very vivid way. He used to
the fullest of his abilities the Xhosa language which is such a picture-drawing
language. And then other people that I've read have been Bessie Head I like her very
much. I have read people like (276-name of person) I like the way he writes. I love
people, who've got a sense of humour, so I love the people who do it naturally.
Another woman that I loved who lived in forties in America wasZora Neale Thurston
(284) she was a storyteller and a novelist. She dared to write about love when people
were writing about the struggle, slavery and whatever. Nothing wrong with that.
201
Give us more ofthat but hey people fall inlove nomatter what. She's amazing and
one ofmy favourite books from her isTheir Eyes Were Watching God. Ifeel that
when shewrote that book itwas, asifas shewrote the first chapter, itwas the only
chapter shewas going to write. Then shewrote the second chapter with the same
intensity and affection and wrapped itup again like apresent with the ribbons and
gave itto the reader. And again here you are, taste, enjoy. This ishow shewrites.
It's amazing to read people who write likethat again we go back to mylove for
words, enjoying the people who canjust mould words andthese ways that you can't
imagine possible. Ilike Zakes Mda very much heissomebody that Iadmire alot. It's
hard to listthe number ofpeople that Iread because Iread somuch. Iknow several
friends of mine who don't know what I'm talking about when I say(name ofperson) is
awonderful storyteller a South American writer. She isastoryteller; her voice comes
through when she writes. Shetakes you to places where you think amodem writer
wouldn't goyet shegoes there. You look atBen Okri taking me tothe years of my
childhood oftalking trees, wonderful flowers and the spirit world, andthe world
above the clouds and below the clouds, below the ocean and allover the place. Ionce
read two books that were just ablessing. Iread The Dragon Can't Dance this author
just drives you tothe last page. Andthen you've got the guy who wrote The Crippled
Dancer, beautiful. Ithink he issuper-educated because he can manipulate the English
language inthat way. He isfrom an Mrican background sohe must bevery educated.
Maybe he studied inEngland Idon't know but he's from West Mrica and it's abook
called The Crippled Dancer. He uses the Mrican idioms inavery effective way. He
does not use them inaway that Iuse them interms of storytelling ..... He takes the
whole book and fits inthe images that areinside the African idioms. SoI'm lucky
indeed totravel and to end up inthe bookshops Iendup in.Ilove books!
QUESTION: Ifyou were writing atheatre piece would you be happy if somebody
else directed itorwould you liketo direct it.
ANSWER: Iwould love ifsomebody directed it. They would give itcharacter, they
would accentuate poems inaway that maybe Ididn't think about. Ibelieve in
collaboration. Ithink the future ofthe creative arts inSouth Africa isinan
interdisciplinary collaboration.
QUESTION: Have you ever done film?
ANSWER: I've done some acting inthe movies but it'sbetter to doitwhen I'm old.
QUESTION: Have you written for television?
ANSWER: I've never done that. I'vebeen approached by agroup ofpeople who
were working onthe Mama Mrica short film series andthey asked different women
towrite half an hour offilm scripts. Sometimes itcould be anew script; itcould be
based on astory that you've got that maybe could have been published even. Many
people who read my short story called Nogulunga's Wedding people asked, "why
don't you make amovie" Slowly I started thinking inthese terms and when the people
from the Mama Mrica short film series asked meto contribute of course I sentthem
the story as itwas. Just the story ofNogulunga's Wedding. And the response was
wonderful. And now Idonot have time. It's something I'm very unskilled indoing.
I'm always ready for achallenge sothese days I've asked them to pass meby to
202
continue with other people who've got the time. But that planted a seed I thank them
for that because one of these days I'm going to sit down when I have time I'm going to
write Nogolunga's Wedding as a film script.
QUESTION: And for radio? Because there's somewhere where storytelling would
work?
ANSWER: I've presented my stories for radio. I've performed Have you Seen
Zandile for BBe World Service which was nominated for the Sony awards it was one
ofthe three top nominees. Also Zandile went very well and I've got many letter from
people saying, "Ordinarily I would never write letters to a woman writer but this was
good" But I would like to one day just to try something fresh for radio and to be
curious to do that.
QUESTION : You mentioned earlier workshoping as a process that you can very
much identify with is that because of the capacity in workshoping to capitalize on the
skills of so many people in concert together and at the same time the kind of spirit that
goes with it? The kind of communal creativity of this property?
ANSWER: Those two things are very important. The fact that you capitalize on all
the skills that people have and their vision and imagination and what have you. Also
the fact that you can make every single person responsible for themselves when they
are on stage. It's not so and so's play it's our play it's communal ownership. When
you walk on that stage you are not going to mess it up. Every night you try hard to
perform that role, to represent that character very well because you've got something
to say. You had a role to give birth to that character.
QUESTION: In some versions of the product that arises in our workshop theatre one
feels tat there needs to be at least at some point in the process somebody to look at it
dispassionately. Because sometimes what I find that it becomes self-indulgent where
you see a piece that clearly doesn't fit with the rest of the ensemble of creativity. But
you feel that the group is too polite to tell the individual that their work just doesn't fit
inartistically with the rest of the group's work?
ANSWER: That's true, that can be possible. I think it's lovely to have an
independent person to be able to look at it whose going to be very partial. That's one
of the reasons why I would appreciate someone else directing my piece. Because it
would be nice to see how they would look at it. How they would shape it. I learn in
the process. So when an independent person walks into a workshop theatre and says,
"okay I'll take over from here I'll try and knock it into a shape that makes sense from
where I'm standing. Not that I'm going to expect all of you to accept what I'm saying
but I will look at it with an independent eye." I think that is something we should
work towards. And maybe let workshop theatre grow one step further.
QUESTION: The independent person could perhaps combine the achieved
excellence with a little bit of skill that would pull it together in a more professional
way in presentation. Otherwise you would be doing it for yourself and not for the
audience.
203
ANSWER: Some of this has to do with the fact that alot of workshop theatre was
taking place during the time when people wanting to do political work and it was very
emotional stuff. I think more and more people would be willing nowadays to take a
step back.
QUESTION: InSouth Mrica you've got various paradigms of theatre and various
types of theatre contribution to the whole of South Mrican Theatre and definitely
there is an Mrocentric approach. There isthe whole story tradition that we've been
talking about. Then you've got the Eurocentric influence. Have you ever encountered
anything from the Indocentric? Have you ever worked in a company where there was
an Indian person contributing to the workshoping process or any other kind of other
influences through literature from a person from the Indian community?
ANSWER: Not really, very limited. I have met Indian directors, a lovely man from
Calcutta who I met in Australia. I don't know what is taking place inside the Indian
community in terms of theatre but in terms of storytelling I wish to collaborate with
Indian storyteller because there is a world out they're of stories from the Indian
culture. And I met this playwright, avery well known dramatist from Calcutta and
we had long talks; we had a really wonderful time. We had a lot of commonalties in
the way we think and the way we see things. I was just sad that I was meeting a man
from Calcutta and not somebody who might have had a background in Calcutta but
whose living in Durban or something like that. Or someone I could visit next week so
that we could follow up on our conversation. So Ithink that is a pity. Even the
amount of filmmaking that takes place in the east, take the whole of Asia there's so
much going on there. And when you look at the number of American movies we
watch. Hello? The world is not only the United States of America. There's a big
world out there. There's so many things going on in our world. And this is a big
African continent and we need to broaden our minds and open our eyes to abigger
world and look east and look north and look south. I've been working with Native
American storytellers. I sit for hours on long nights with old people and I'm the
youngest person in the whole room. I listen to songs and stories of the Native
American people. They burn sweet grass and while I was there I kept thinking my
father would feel at home here. So indeed we need to be very much aware of the
bigger world as South Mricans. I'm one of the lucky people who have managed to
travel as much as I have.
QUESTION: Could that not be afist step on taking on board a consciousness that
we are part of Mrica? What about starting with our immediate neighbours?
ANSWER: There is a storyteller in Malawi he is called the national storyteller of
Malawi. He sings his stories; he has gone blind he is very old. He lives on Lake
Malawi, he's got a house there. I'm part of an organization called (092) we went to
visit him. We traveled the whole of Malawi and then we found him. What a gift what
a beautiful time we had - and how many people have actually heard of (094). I've
met I've also met a guru of a storyteller last year. When he walks into aroom with his
people there's a reverence. At first when he came I did not know who he was because
it was not pre-announced. It was at aworkshop and somebody decided to invite this
guy and he showed up with his brother. He is pitch black, almost blue, and he was
wearing a vividly purple outfit and white shoes and a hat. He's got this aura about
him. He walks into the room and he radiates reverence. He was speaking French and
204
~---------------------_ ..??
I don't speak French so I didn't know what was happening. And eventually I was
introduced 0 this man and I found out he was a guru of a storyteller and that he could
sing? So I had written a song during the course of the workshop because it was a
musical workshop not a storytelling workshop. And from time to time there were a
few minutes of storytelling in the process of presentation because every single day at
6 0' clock we used to do presentation. And I had written a song for my voice and I
was singing it at my tone this man comes in with his voice and kicks the roof of with
the way only West Africans sing. The merging from our two voices was
unbelievable. I was going mad. Where can you imagine something like this? That
experience was like a spiritual nourishment a kind of trip. And so there is so much for
us to learn and grow from in our own continent of Africa without crossing one ocean.
QUESTION: What about from the rest of Africa?
ANSWER: I have met a man who will stand out in my memory for many years to
come. I don't have to see him everyday. We still write letters to each other from time
to time when we get a chance. He has an impact that you can't forget if you've met
him. His name is Baba Parnzoya he's from Ghana. Beautiful person, lovely writer
and a very passionate dramatist. He writes both in English and his indigenous
language. He travels to villages; he's into ordinary people getting the message.
Doesn't matter about the fancy theatres because that's his job that's where he wants to
go.
QUESTION: Have you met anybody from Namibia?
ANSWER: I've met a group from Namibia who do beautiful theatre. They use
Xoisan work. I met them at the North-South workshop. I was one of the black
directors there. And then there's a group called Sister Collective in Namibia. They do
drama and poetry. They do different things on woman. I am very fascinated by
them. I love what they do I've performed with them, I've shared a stage with them,
and I've watched the work that they do and they are very hard working people.
QUESTION: Botswana?
ANSWER: In Botswana there's a festival called The Mighty Song Festival. I met a
lovely group there. They do beautiful theatre and they use a lot of drums.
QUESTION: Do you recall who organizes that festival?
ANSWER: The name of the guy is Thomas. He is photographer.
QUESTION: Finally in your experience do you think the prophets of doom are
correct and that theatre is dying in this country?
ANSWER: I don't think theatre is dying I think any art form has got its ebbs and the
flows like the waves of the ocean and theatre has had a hard time making a comeback
from the time ofthe wonderful protest theatre era. There's been a very hard fall but
I'm not saying it's a death.
CONCLUSION: Thank you very much that was a wonderful interview.
205
Appendix 4
INTERVIEW WITH GIBSON KENTE
By Dennis Schauffer
NOTE:
The interviews are printed here as they were initially transcribed. Inevitably
typing and transcription errors, as well as gaps, will occur.
QUESTION: How didyou first get involved inthe theatre? What were your earliest
memories that would inspire you to enter that world? What were conditions intheatre
inthose early days?
ANSWER: You know the whole thing started with music. Originally Iwas not a
dramatist. As alittle kid my family had to move from East London tothe countryside
when mygrandparents passed away. Igrew up with mymother who decided totake
over the property somewhere inthe Cape. And there Igot incontact with pastoral
life. Looking after sheep, looking after cattle...
QUESTION: Sorry where about was that inthe Cape?
ANSWER: My earliest memories go back tothe wild fruit inthe afternoon when the
breeze was settled down. From that inspiration Iwould sing something. The other
boys would join me and the following day the song would begone but Igot used to
memorizing them because the guys would sayto me, "what was that song we sang
yesterday." The song isforgotten for them because itwasjust aninspiration for the
moment, butthat's where Itrace mybackground towriting orbeing aware that Icould
write. Iwas pretty young atthat time. Ithen moved tothe Eastern Cape even before
we went Studderbraham Iattended school out atTraining College. This was the
seventh day Iwas at school, there was somuch singing there were trios and quartets
and ... and my favourite moment inthat school was Saturday afternoon. Ican't
remember what they called service but itwas achoral service, and itwas song, song,
and song allthe way. Ithink that's where Ipicked the gospel up the gospel, because
the priest was from California and sowe heard the hymns and gospels from America,
that influenced me. Coupled with uswas afamily who was involved inthe church.
My mother had abig voice Ithink the two combinations sort ofgave methe basis.
Then when myfamily went to Stutterheim Iencountered pastoral life. Istarted
206
actually creating songs in my head. And from there I went to Bethal Training College
in Alice that was also next to Fort Hare in the Eastern Cape. I started forming my
groups. I had a musical group called The Rhythm Heaters. I would write about the
people who didn't comb their hair, I would write about the street children, I would
write about whatever I saw around me. Now one thing I must admit at this stage I
cannot claim to attach my background to any experience with, like you, said
storytelling. Okay we used to occasionally have visitors from deep in the Transkei. I
remember there was an old man who'd tell us some kind of story. Sometimes you
would hear he was fabricating these things just to entertain the kids you know. But
basically in terms of poetry, Ijust don't have that kind of a background. So that is
more or less how I remember that era, that formative period in my life. That it was
my mother, it was the church, the Lutheran; the Lutheran was coupled with a seventh
day adventists. Of course there you heard the melodies from the river people with
buckets on their heads and those collecting wood from the forest. I gained the
traditional flavour as like someone born with this talent. They and the influence later
in my life because if you listen to my music, the traditional part is strong, the gospel
part is strong, these two are very, very, very strong. Then of course being in Training
College there were musical videos of Louis Jordan and so on and I think that
flavoured me into the township mode.
QUESTION: So how did you couple the musical tradition with stage presentation?
Because I mean you could have set up a music group, but what made you use the
drama group as avehicle?
ANSWER: No let's be clear about drama. From Bethal (Training College) after
passing my matric I came to Johannesburg and to Jan Hofmeyer School of Social
Work. This was where I met Ray Phillips. I tried to look for people who were
dramatists, my life as I say was music. I tried to look for people who were dramatists
so that they could write the drama and I could write the lyrics. I went from pillar to
post most unsuccessfully. Who was I? Another you know pumpkin, country
bumpkin. So I said well I'd like to get this experience. And Manana The Jazz
Prophet was born. This was my first play. It centered on Manana the Prophet, whose
main concern was bringing everybody to the Lord. He was basically a gospel
preacher. It was a very popular play and that's when I thought I could go on my own.
Because the churches, the parents, the kids, supported my play. Actually even on TV
I was top, I was top of the heap there. Our appeal had to be from the child to the Totsi
in the street. So that's how I started writing plays otherwise originally my first love
was music. That's why in my plays I have music. I had a fight with the S.A.B.C.
They didn't understand how I was going to put music into the drama. It worked with
my first drama, which was Mama's Love, it worked beautifully. I must admit at the
beginning I had problems. The people were not used to my style. Episode one and
two flopped but from episode four right up to the end I was number one all the way
My production rated number one all the way. The critics were surprised because the
early public slandered. They said that this was a representation of the stage on TV.
But people got used to my stuff and began to believe in it, because I believe that
acting must be natural but not ordinary. Now most of the Black productions are too
ordinary. People are not actually living what they do. But you can be natural, relaxed
and you know speak you your mind but have a feeling and a strong focus on what you
doing, this is what I believe in. And I believe in artistic energy.
207
QUESTION: To what extent areyour plays literary, inother words written and
people learn lines orhow much isthe result ofimprovisation?
ANSWER: I've never had aplay that was an improvised play, never. Even Manana
The Jazz Prophet was ascript.
QUESTION: And inperformance you did you direct pieces?
ANSWER: Idirect, Ichoreograph, Itrain the actors.
QUESTION: Did you perform inany?
ANSWER: No I've never performed. And I've never been involved, even inmy
youth, even at school inanything dramatic. Because at school I liked English and
poetry andthat kind ofathing.
QUESTION: Inthe early days when you found people you could work with, how
didyou get your groups together?
ANSWER: Through auditioning through the papers, the radio and so on.
QUESTION: And those plays did you take them ontour or didyou have them inone
place only?
ANSWER: No Iwould tour with them. This isactually how everyone could focus
onme asadramatist. Because mine was the first touring company.
QUESTION: When didthe touring start atthe very first production?
ANSWER: Yes Manana The Jazz Prophet was in 1962.
QUESTION: Now how were the tours organized? How didyou announce that you
were arriving? How didyou letpeople know? And how didyou find the venues?
ANSWER: You know Itell you Manana The Jazz Prophet didnottour extensively
because atthat stage Iwas under (829). And they didn't run things to my satisfaction
sothe tour was really inthe Transvaal. Then Isplit with them got onmyown through
the blessings ofRichard Maponye. That isthe man who put me onmyway because I
was fresh out ofHofmeyer, doing social work, Ididn't have money. Iremember that
important two hundred rands inmy lifebecause inthose days you could build your
set, paint and setup ashow with those two hundred rand. Now myfirst realbig
production was Sikalo. Ithad very big advantages because we were clever enough to
record the music and distribute itnationally. Itell you bythe time we got to Cape
Town, East London, Port Elizabeth itwas asensation already because the music was
known there. Itwas capacity houses allthe way.
QUESTION: Alright. What would atypical tour involve?
ANSWER: Itwould cover every sizeable town inthe country.
208
QUESTION: AndNatal?
ANSWER: Natal. Everywhere.
QUESTION: Now when you say "sizeable town" what doyou mean? Can you give
me examples?
ANSWER: Ladysmith, Escort, Vryheid, andNewcastle.
QUESTION: Okay. Did you perform inHalls?
ANSWER: Yes itwas halls inthose days. You seewe weren't allowed inthe cities -
we were too dark to give into realtheatres.
QUESTION: What kind offacilities didyou have intownship halls? What was the
lighting like?
ANSWER: Pattern 23would be used as afollow spot. Somebody would sitright in
front ofthe stage withjust asmall follow spot to follow the action. One little
spotlight and then from the windows we would hang some spots and basically we had
atthe most ten spotlights for our production. Now that was ofcourse anexperience,
because when I started inthis game TV was unknown inthe country, even plays were
unknown. People were saying these are sketches or abioscope ofliving people.
QUESTION: Did you have dimming?
ANSWER: No where I started there was no dimming, there was no dimmer board.
QUESTION: And sound? Did you have amplified sound at all?
ANSWER: Ja,but stillon stage they sang everything live.
QUESTION: You mentioned recording the music?
ANSWER: We did record anLP. There was LPthat was released.
QUESTION: Soyou didnot actually play to recorded music?
ANSWER: No, not atthat stage.
QUESTION: Have you ever done that?
ANSWER: Yes Ididthat subsequently. With disastrous results. Duma Ndlovu
slated me. Iunderstand because he isused tothat township style and approach.
QUESTION: Isthere anintimate relationship between the musician and the action?
ANSWER: That isthe point that iswhat people were missing, because you can
always hear canned music Idon't care what you say.
209
QUESTION: Sonow let's talk about costuming. You obviously made your own
costumes, did you make your own sets?
ANSWER: Everything we made ithere. Setsyou name it.
QUESTION: Now when you didcostuming did you create your costumes
realistically for acharacter? Shall we saythe policemen asarole? Did you try and
get the uniforms to look likethose inreal life?
ANSWER: That's right. Ifone was acomic character though hewould be dressed
with alot ofcolours inthat sortofcomic way.
QUESTION: Mbongeni Ngema's work has alotofthe elements we aretalking about
itsurfaces there again very strongly. When you went tothe halls how was the money
organized? Did you have someone from your cast like amanager? Ifit'snot rude to
askhow much where your ticket prices? Just to give me an idea asto how many
people would pay inthose days for that experience?
ANSWER: You know that's going to be avery difficult question now because, like I
said toyou two hundred rands got meoffthe ground. Soeven 50c atthat time was a
hell oftot money when I started. Today Iwould charge about fifteen rands. When I
started with something like fifty cents.
QUESTION: But people were stillprepared to spend the equivalent ofa couple of
packets ofcigarettes to come to your show?
ANSWER: You know there was no TV like Isaid when Istarted and the incidence
ofoverseas stars coming into the country was still low. Itwas notthere atall.
QUESTION: Tour transport. What kind oftransport didyou use?
ANSWER: We used abus. One bus and atrailer for everything.
QUESTION: How big were the casts?
ANSWER: My casts are normally around seventeen to eighteen including the
orchestra. When I say eighteen that's too big -that's okay for PACT andthe theatre.
My casts were never more than 15.
QUESTION: What did you expect from your performers?
ANSWER: The main factor was versatility.
QUESTION: Sothat everyone hasto beversatile to get into the play?
ANSWER: That's right, but more than that Iwant aperformer who's ajack ofall
trades .... Acting, dancing, singing.
QUESTION: And interms ofthe structure ofyour dramatic work. For example you
have asmall scene to start with, itwill start out asadiscussion about something and
210
then this will go into a song and then go into a dance routine for the song and then out
of that will come another scene?
ANSWER: That's right.
QUESTION: So the scenes themselves are relatively short, where you have a swift
turnover of scenes that drives the plot along?
ANSWER: My scenes are on average of maybe four or five in the first half and
three or so in the second half.
QUESTION: Do you have an interval?
ANSWER: Yes I have an interval definitely. Definitely because I time my plays to
not more than two hours.
QUESTION: Did you have facilities at interval? Did you sell anything?
ANSWER: Occasionally people from outside would come and sell but not anything
organized.
QUESTION: Now before SABC and all that era of your life was there any political
interference in your work? Where you ever prevented from doing what you wanted to
do?
ANSWER: Yes the first encounter with that experience was How Long. That was
my first encounter but I must say even before that script censorship was there every
part of the country except Natal.
QUESTION: Really, that's interesting.
ANSWER: That was the only area that was uncensored - remember Asinalmali? -
that was critical of Buthelezi.
QUESTION: But if they wanted to stop your production would they actually prevent
you from using a hall?
ANSWER: That's right, from coming into the hall at all.
QUESTION: So you got on your bus and they'd tum you away?
ANSWER: They would tum you away. If you were lucky they would advise you
that your script had been turned down. But in many instances for example when I
went to Bloemfontein and when I went to enter the location I was stopped. I was not
allowed to perform that day.
QUESTION: Just Like that?
ANSWER: Just like that. But it got worse. It got to a point where they would stop
me at the eleventh hour and say, "Mr. Kente the owner of the cinema has been
211
blacklisted so you may only perform here at your own risk." Now obviously nobody
would want to enter the place. There was an incident when I had to move people
from that area to another hall because people wanted to see the show a lot of them
followed me. This happened just that moment before the show could start.
QUESTION: So you got it from both sides?
ANSWER: There was another play called The Hard Road. This play was saying it
was a mistake to interfere with education basically. In Port Elizabeth I was told to get
out with my cast and never set foot in that town. Because I said, "look we can do
whatever we came to do. We all are against the oppression and the apartheid system."
In that place the parents, struggling parents, you'd see them sneaking out with their
children at night. They would be taking the children out of the township to some
home because at least some homeless did not have that kind of problem. Even in the
University ofthe North I was reported to the Cultural Desk there, Mzwake although
he was chewing it he unfortunately could not save us. Not only me because Sello
Maake KaNcube from Generations he also experienced the same thing where his play
was banned.
QUESTION: And when you went to work for PACT you got a lot of flack there too?
ANSWER: I always believed in the principles of Dr. Martin Luther King. Obey a
good law so that if you fight a bad law people feel it isjust survival but if you are
going to reject everything people are not going to know whether they are winning the
struggle or ifthey are getting anywhere. I said if PACT theatres are open why not use
them they belong to us.
QUESTION: And then you left PACT
ANSWER: No I went on. Then people got scared in the townships. They thought
maybe coming back from the theatre they would be victimized.
QUESTION: What are your links now? Do you still operate independently? Are
you allied with any particular grouping?
ANSWER: No I still operate independently but I put a stop now to stage
productions. You see the time is not right. Because you go to the city now, people
favoured the city at one stage but now with the crime being what it is, people's
attendance is very poor.
QUESTION: And going on the road like you used to?
ANSWER: No. The township halls were burned during the protests where are you
going to perform in the townships? Besides no one goes around after 7:30.
QUESTION: That's sad because I mean that is the death to the theatrical art.
ANSWER: that isthe death to the theatre unfortunately. This is why I pray I can get
the money to rekindle the interest in our own stories.
212
QUESTION: Because alot ofpeople likethe ones we have mentioned have been
influenced bythat.
ANSWER: That's right.
QUESTION: It's an inspiring thing to dobut ifthe whole township never ever sees a
play .
ANSWER: Even ifyou had totake ittothe Civic. Iused to gofrom township to
township on different weekends and that ishow Igot people influenced intheatre in
the townships. Because Itook theatre tothe people.
QUESTION: Now letstalk about the people that you know that you've influenced.
What arethe people that you can look back onwho has made itinthe theatre?
ANSWER: Maybe Ishould start counting now. Inthe early days the names that
were very big, Margaret Singane these were the early productions now, Ndaba
Mshlongo who was avery popular character you know nationally. Because from me
hewent onto TV and there again glorified my name. Well then from there I can't
count because even Brenda Fassie ismyprodigy. Her history isvery interesting
because shewas self-taught. At anearly stage shewas still akidwhen we visited
Cape Town some ofthe cast members would stay at her house. Because another thing
that happened was there was no hotel accommodation. We relied onrelatives and
friends wherever we went. Sowhat happened during rehearsals inCape Town inthe
afternoons Brenda would join the rehearsals and she would listen to the songs and this
ishow shepicked itup. Sothese are some ofthe artists that were prominent. Then
we have you know Mbongeni Ngema and soon and soforth it'sastream ofthem.
QUESTION: Isthere aGibson Kente style?
ANSWER: Yes. Now you are asking methe most painful question. The most
excruciating question inmylife really. Like I saidto you earlier Ibase mytraining on
artistic energy, and what Iterm serpent power that isallthere but isnot ahuman with
muscles and allbut itoozes from the inner soul. But then you get actors overacting
and forcing the voice and being external. And people say your actors force their
acting. Selo feels I've been misunderstood bypeople outside but because ofpeople
I'm going to sayterrible things. Ialways sayblacks are lazy. They are looking for
short cuts. Now this iswhat Iexperience when Iteach my actors here. Iwill actually
demonstrate how to breathe sometimes. The delivery and distribution and execution
ofthat air, inorder to relax. The minute you listen to your breathing you tend to
relax. We lose our cool when we lose breathing. Sobasically this ismyteaching and
this isthe teaching that many kids would undermine because they want to shirk.
QUESTION: It iseasy to overplay, exaggerate orto stereotype and fall into a
portrayal of acharacter that they couldjust tum on likethat without anything from
inside. The people who are really inside the character stand out from althe rest.
ANSWER: Very interesting. Susan who isnow anactress was virtually born here.
She started with me in 1976 and you won't believe itonly this year when Iwas doing
213
Four Way Two at Windybrow she was sitting inthe audience watching the show.
After the performance she said to me, "for the first time I understand what you want
from you performers." And I said to her, "thank you very much." And she told me,
"this iswhat you always wanted. You don't need a lot of movements but on small
movement that iswell executed that's acting. That's why I teach many white actors
you know because whites are not excited like us. They are not over emotional.
QUESTION: Have you been influenced by any particular white actor?
ANSWER: No.
QUESTION: Because many others have worked with Barney Simon, Athol Fugard
and so on.
ANSWER: No I've always been on my own.
QUESTION: There was an advantage associating with people from white
Universities, white liberal English speaking Universities because there was a venue
and they went into collaboration with them.
ANSWER: Suburban Bliss and things like that. We are out- going people we are
extroverts in many ways we like expressing ourselves.
QUESTION: Mbogeni Ngema makes a point about white companies being a bunch
of individuals all acting for themselves whereas he's trying to get atheatrical family
operating as a unit in his casts and so on. To the extent of all living at his house and
sharing experiences and so on as a unit?
ANSWER: You know when artists come here I make them know that I can give
them something which they can use for the rest of their lives but they are responsible
for their own. The family idea, I don't know how it comes into the picture really I've
never understood that. My pride is to see them get out of here, stand on their own and
to make their own way.
QUESTION: It's interesting because the word that has come up in interviews is
Ubantu. The idea of a kind of shared responsibility for others within the group and
how that conflicts with western notions of a company and so on.
ANSWER: I don't know. I don't understand it. Naturally if you come to Kente's
school you are going to get influenced by Kente in the same way as those who worked
with Grotowski were influenced by him. I believe being black is something to be
proud of because we have different backgrounds and different cultures and so on.
Let's not destroy ourselves. If evolution is such that many years ahead we merge in
cultures because already now we've had people from exile and when they come back
their English is not quite the English we speak here but that's understandable because
they have had a different experience. But to go out of you're way to try to be
somebody else .
QUESTION: There has been a very concerted effort at the Play House Company to
transform in the sense of being more representative. Bringing in people like Mbogeni
Ngema, using the community outreach programmes and educational progammes and
214
things like that. I've noticed that there's a concerted effort being made to use black
performers in productions. At another time it would have been considered tokenism.
To have if the cast is like for example there was a Black Annie and a White Annie.
And the black Annie was in fact very suitable for the role. She was from a private
school education. And certainly in performance skills better than the White Annie
and her singing ability was much better too. But audiences had a strange response to
a Black Annie. In their heads was a concept of a character a white character that they
had read in their youth. It took quite a lot to make that shift. In the Royal
Shakespeare Company in the sixties and seventies it was very common to have at let
one black face in a cast doing Shakespeare or doing one of the classics. It always
seemed odd perhaps because historically because you would not have had a black
Henry the Eighth.
ANSWER: Let's turn it around. Let's say you have a white Shaka will that be
acceptable?
QUESTION: People would say that for years and years Othello was "blacked" up
enough So they say what is the difference between that and a black person doing the
role of Annie.
ANSWER: You were talking about tokenism I agree with you in that way.
Sometimes we take things to extremes just to conform but in terms of theatrical
acceptability audiences have a problem. I mean this thing is made for audiences. I
have a big problem with that again once I shied away from tokenism. And this
tokenism goes even further to affirmative action you find people placed in positions
they are not qualified for because it is the era for blacks now to assume certain roles.
Are we going to destroy the fibre of life at the expense of affirmative action? It's not
doing South Africa any good and I could go as far as saying that it is destroying the
image of the ANC. Because there are not enough good people in certain positions to
deliver the way delivery should be so there is a delay and the managers out there are
getting fed up. At the end I'm scared 1999 is going to be quite a tough year for the
ANC an extremely tough year.
QUESTION: If a young white actor arrived at your door and wanted to join your
group what would be your response?
ANSWER: If the play can accommodate a white actor then I have no problem with
that whatsoever.
QUESTION: Turning the clock back now. United Artists and the early days of
Dorkay House. What was your association with them in those years in the fifties?
ANSWER: I fondly remember Dorkay House very fondly. That's where I and
people like myself got their start. I broke away from there because of management
and the way they were running the place but I fondly remember how Ian used to go
out of his way to make sure there's a show. So I think Dorkay served a very important
role in the history of theatre. Nobody can deny that.
QUESTION: Have you ever toured outside of South Africa?
215
ANSWER: Only asfar asZimbabwe otherwise Rhodesia and allthose areas.
QUESTION: And where did you gothere.
ANSWER: To various townships.
QUESTION: And was that asuccess? What play didyou take upthere?
ANSWER: Sicalo.
QUESTION: That was the only show you ever took upthere?
ANSWER: Yes.
QUSETION: Were there any problems that made you not go upthere again?
ANSWER: Yes. We did have language problems. Now again the city hallthere was
not easily accessible that created abit ofaproblem.
QUESTION: What isyour language?
ANSWER: English.
QUESTION: Inotice you use alittle bit ofAfrikaans sometimes inappropriate
roles, Tsotsi Taal and Zulu.
ANSWER: To avery little extent. Because someday we will be in Sutu terrain then
the next dayI'm inZululand then Icross tothe Transkei. Ikeep the vernacular
minimal. It canbe exclamations and maybe afew words.
QUESTION: But ifyou move from shallwe say Ulundi to somewhere like
Butterworth doyou change the language.
ANSWER: Yes we do.
ANSWER: It's always an advantage ifwe have Zulu-Sutu speaking artists aswell.
Because when we enter the Free Statethey'll play along with the language.
QUESTION: Isthat aninstruction or dothey dothat quite naturally?
ANSWER: They do itnaturally.
QUESTION: To what extent isthe script translated? Ifthey sensed that the
audience that they were playing to were really not looking interested would they
translate.
ANSWER: No no no! You seethe dialogue that was originally Zulu inthe script
that isthe only dialogue that they'd play along with. Otherwise you are open to
dangerous improvisation by actors.
216
QUESTION: That's avery interesting point because the impression one gets is that
there was agreat deal of reciprocity between the performer on the stage and the
audience. Shall we say there was a fight on stage and there's lively participation from
the audience? Let's say the audience intervenes and advises that actor to do
something and it begged aresponse. Would they be able to respond or would they
have to stick to the script?
ANSWER: Very strictly to the script.
QUESTION: Sothere would not be the opportunity for them to actually open it out
because again as you said they would lead it to maybe even an extended
improvisation?
ANSWER: You see there are those workshop productions without awell-formalized
script. This is why my productions have been respected. Instead of actors remarking
aloud I always work on their emotions and their artistic approach. They must respect
the group.
QUESTION: All your actors are professional then inthe sense that they get paid?
ANSWER: That's right.
QUESTION: Is itbased on the proportion of your takings, do they become
shareholders in the enterprise?
ANSWER: No it's on the takings, we agreed on that. But then I've been very lucky
because my actors have always had faith in me. Simple to understand why because
it's the actors themselves on top who look after the books? Sothey are open to the
takings. They are open to what comes to the production and the expenses on it. I did
this when I started because I had no money but along the way I realized it's healthy
because the actor can't say, "he owes me money" when there's no money they get to
know there's no money.
QUESTION: So everyone is a shareholder?
ANSWER: That's right.
QUESTION: That's agood idea because then they will want to keep the production
as good as possible and the standards up?
ANSWER: You would imagine that to be so but itnever worked out that way. I am
so disenchanted with my people.
QUESTION: But surely they could see the advantages to keeping atight show?
ANSWER: When you go and watch Ipitombi there is a little girl there Velapi. That
kid started here. We had this play, there was a song there Itell you she never finished
that song without the audience being on its feet, never. Then they slipped out of my
hands. After four weeks Ijoined them somewhere in Cape Town she had lost the feel
217
of the song. The basic technique of internalizing the song up to the close of the show
was gone. Can you believe that?
QUESTION: Well in a way yes. People get complacent and they think they're too
good and they don't have to try anymore. It happens I think in all companies in a way
as soon as the director leaves. That's the danger.
ANSWER: No. You are going to find me a bit unsympathetic towards my own
people. But I attribute that to one thing and nothing else, the politics. Black politics.
I attribute this to that. You must take a quick snap survey of these informal traders
here. They are from outside South Africa. Invariably these guys watching my car
here are from outside South Africa. You go to the spaza shops; they are from outside
South Africa. You go to the street vendors, watches and everything they are from
outside South Africa.
QUESTION: What accounts for that?
ANSWER: Politics. I go back to what I said earlier I've had a lot of respect for
Martin Luther King and the Black American struggle because they were taught to
walk tall, never walk in another man's shadow. We were taught here that we were
made inferior. We are oppressed. We were not taught to get up and say be ready,
fight positively not destructively. This is why immediately after our emancipation or
our freedom we were groping now because we were expecting handouts.
QUESTION: The culture of entitlement?
ANSWER: That is right. There was this play that was banned called Now Is The
Time. What was he saying in that play? He was saying adapt or die - we must adapt
or otherwise we are finished. These people are going to take over. There's a black
president in our future. I was as serious as the Black Panthers. I was attacking the
way the black person was viewing the struggle. We were not preparing for the future
instead we are destroying ourselves left right and centre. Prominent people in the
struggle were saying, "we will destroy the economy" Can you accept that? What are
we fighting for? We were not fighting for political power. I am not interested; the
man on the street is not interested in power. He wants to gain from freedom, like
jobs, and a better life. That's all we are interested in. This is what every struggle is
about to get a raise, economical empowerment. This was my argument in the play.
That we are not focusing on the day but we're taking over this country. Now is the
time that is why the play was called Now Is the Time, now is the time for us to get
ready. Those people are saying adapt or die then let's also adapt and try. Do you
know my play wasn't accepted by the forces of the day? Black forces. Actually it's
one of the reasons I've stopped stage work. I've done this several times. But artists
always carne back saying their had no jobs, promising me they would work hard, that
kind of stuff. Then I'll be trapped and I'd go back to stage work. I've done this three
times. You know Selo understood where I was corning from. Selo understood me
very well.
CONCLUSION: Thank you very much for a very important interview.
218
APPENDIX 5
INTERVIEW WITH MATSEMELA MANAKA
23rd MAY 1999,
Fordsburg, Johannesburg.
Interviewer: ProfD.Schauffer
NOTE:
The interviews are printed here as they were initially transcribed. Inevitably
typing and transcription errors, aswellas gaps, willoccur.
D.S. :First of allMatsemela, thank you for giving up some ofyour valuable time to
give usthis interview. There ismuch ground that Iwould liketo cover: how
you got started inthe theatre ,what drew you to itasanart form ,who
influenced your work ... many contemporary black African dramatists in
South Africa acknowledge the influence ofGibson Kente for example ....
Then Iwould like you to comment onwhat you regard to bethe contribution
ofblack African dramatists tothe art ofthe theatre. To start with then :How
did you get started ?
M.M Well, basically Istarted out looking attheatre and atwork bypeople like
Gibson Kente ,Nelson Mungwane and ofcourse there were anumber ofplays
at school. We would dramatize historical material at school. Atthe time, I
mean, Iwas sort ofgetting involved with theatre as anacademic exercise to
interpret certain historical events. Then came '76 you know, and some ofus
ended up ininstitutions not knowing whether we would ever seeUniversity or
even complete our studies. Sodrama asan educational tool for myself and for
others became very important ... itwas critical for me .
I started as apainter and Ialso worked onpoetry but we couldn't exhibit one's
work within one's living environment soIstarted seeing the theatre asa
vehicle to exhibit mypaintings and poetry on stage. Webattled, but we grew
up .Because of '76 we started to grow upwith the notion that the type of
theatre we were seeing produced bypeople like Gibson, Nelson Mungwane ,
and Boykie Mashwane ,itwas good theatre but we saw there was something
lacking. That came with Sizwe Banzi isDead, Iremember seeing John Kani
and Winston Ntshona doing Sizwe Banzi atthe DiepkloofHall atthe
DiepkloofHotel .For mebeing into theatre as something that enriches you
219
intellectually, I could relate to that type of theatre. It raised issues that we felt
were important to raise. When we saw Shanti done by the People's Theatre
Association with Victor Modise we started to see a different type of theatre
that was beginning to make political statements. It raised political issues, and
it wasn't just dealing with social issues. We slowly got exposed to a lot of
stuff and that is how I think Egoli came about. It was very much influenced
by what Athol, John and Winston were doing. What we tried to do was to
marry the two genres, that of Gibson Kente , and that of some serious drama
... to find something in between .
D.S Are you implying that what you were looking for was a Gibson Kente type of
theatre in terms of form, but informed by more solid political statement?
M.M Gibson dealt with political statements in a different way. He uses a human
perspective, showing what the human being goes through. You have to find
the statement in his work. For me his work is more within the storytelling
tradition ... somebody always tells a story. In my own work I work a lot
through dreams . There are things that you dream about that appear to have
happened before in your life but you struggle to remember exactly when .. I
also listened a lot to my grandmother telling me lots of stories and this was
like theatre. Then when I started writing and telling stories people would say I
was Brechtian . I used to take offence because when I wrote I had never heard
of Brecht , I didn't know about Grotowski . It was because of the poor
conditions in which we lived that led us to create theatre similar to what
Grotowski was doing .But because sometimes we also wanted to sound a little
academic or a little informed, we would buy the idea that we were Brechtian
.In fact we never knew about Brecht. You know, it just happened . It was the
way we told our stories.
D.S. That is a very important statement. Your theatrical devices such as flashbacks
and dream sequences, and perhaps even Zakes Mda's magic realism, has it's
origin then not so much in the European world of Brecht, Grotowski , Boal
and so on , very powerful influences that they are, but yours come from a
storytelling base, within the Mrican paradigm.
M.M People all over the world like to tell stories. I came to Durban so now I want to
tell you about this ... that I went to the beach and this or that happened
.Theatre just shows you a reenactment of what happened - I mean its like a
flashback, right? You know when the elderly person or grandparent tell
stories there is a moment when they break away from just telling the story and
they show you exactly what happened .. This reenactment is a very powerful
theatrical tool and obviously it is to be found in African traditions it is to be
found in Europe, you find that all over the world. Old people in traditional
societies tell stories. They are the custodians of our past.
What I had a problem with - obviously it's the old problem of colonialism - was
that some academics and historians did not want to recognize that certain
African traditions were similar to groupings in Europe and elsewhere -
Similar living conditions could produce similarities in traditions .If you come
from a poor background then the poverty of that background begins to shape
your thinking and it shapes the way you create. So , someone in a similar
220
-----------------~ .??
environment somewhere far away from you, could produce similar work.
Like when you look at sculptures, you don't find many wooden sculptures in
urban areas because there are fewer trees, but go to rural areas and you find a
lot of sculptors who create in wood. In terms of theatre when you look at what
is called 'traditional Africa' you find a very strong element of song and dance
. Here in the cities we seem desperate to make a statement through the theatre
and we tend to use a lot of words, we tend to write more text and not to use
the 'traditional' elements as much. In fact in South Africa we grew up with an
anti attitude towards the Ipi Tombi type of production but this is a very
important element in African Theatre. Gibson transformed this into an urban
form. As for me I wouldn't do a play without a drum in it , without dance,
without song. Theatre is a celebration oflife .At the end of the day even if
you complain about what is going on on a socio-political level you are still
celebrating life .We need to revisit some of the traditions, like baptism, you
know the strengthening ofa child. We spend too much time reacting to
politics and not enough time celebrating our traditions and rituals. You don't
see enough South African theatre celebrating South African rituals. It seems
that our ritual was Apartheid all the time.
It was interesting for me when I was at Durban-Westville we had Indian
students and African students, and so-called coloured students and you ask
how do you bring these cultures together in the theatre? What is common to
performance in all of these cultures? So, an African actor sings a song in an
African language and an Indian student recognizes a certain pattern, a certain
part of a melody that is common to a song in the Indian language Then you
maybe add a tabla and you begin to see the merging of the cultures without
your imposing it . If! go to Senegal , and I listen to them sing, they sing like
my people in Pietersburg , because they have small voices and their music is
like a ballad. Same like Indian music. I think colonialism is such a painful
phenomenon that it denies people the understanding and the richness of all
different cultures .It makes one culture want to dominate over the other
cultures and as a result we do not enrich ourselves. South Africans have
denied themselves this possibility for so long .In a way this is also mirrored in
my career. I started with the influence of John Kani , Winston Ntshona ,Athol
and it was all heavy political statements .and we didn't have much respect for
Gibson Kente .But then you begin to see that Gibson actually made much
stronger political statements because he showed the human experience and
that reflected a political reality. As a result too he could speak to a much
broader audience. We would speak to a very limited audience because people
at that time, I remember them well, they used to watch our shows looking at
the back door whether the police were gonna come in. This stopped the ritual
of experiencing theatre. The theatre is a ritual and you cant, I mean, go for
your sacrament and still be worried that the police will come in . This is
probably why I stopped for some time even to write or produce for the stage.
South Africans were also denied the opportunity to see much of the theatre from
outside of South Africa. When I went to a theatre festival in Germany we
were celebrities because we were black from South Africa. So, we became
celebrities, but our work was not up to standard .When I looked at the work
by theatre companies from Belgium and from Italy, I said ' Our work is a
joke' You go to Edinburgh and you see every year a South African work on
the Fringe, but when you look at the quality of some of the other productions
221
there you realize that you are being colonized further .We had the advantage
of coming from an oppressed situation. South Africa was on the map I mean.
Okay but let them for a change review my work without thinking of me as a
South Mrican . Let this person just come and sit there and look at this piece,
without even knowing it's South Mrican Just look at it and tell me honestly
about it's quality as a drama. Our actors became more and more lazy because
they were celebrities wherever they went .When they came back from
overseas you could see they were lazy ... they were lousy! They did not learn
from that European or American experience .Now when you go to Nigeria, to
Senegal or to Ghana, theatre there is rooted in their own traditions. When
Wole Soyinka writes you can feel that cultural resonance, its there .. With us
it's a battle. We have very few writers in this country. Okay we have Zakes
Mda , he knows how to write for the stage. Others battle to make a piece of
theatre and you cannot sit in an office and write a play and say 'I've
completed the script, it's done, I'm giving it to a producer.'
D.S. The use of traditional song and dance is all very well but sometimes, like the use
it is put to in some ofMbongeni Ngema's work, I wonder quite what it is
celebrating ?
M.M. Ya . No . It's true, I mean we see a lot of musical drama, and we call it
musical drama, but it's musical extravaganza. Somebody comes onto the
stage singing and dancing and you don't even know why there is a dance there
. Suddenly in the middle of a very strong sequence five young girls are on
stage dancing and then the whole cast .... And you in the audience are trying to
connect the dance with the text. Song and dance must be in context like it is in
a production like Death and the King's Horsemen. But you are right there are
dangers and one can become obsessed with throwing in dance and song into
every show .. For some of us though our obsession was with words .We
wanted to write well. We wanted to write the type of English using all the
idiomatic expressions so that your drama was almost poetry. Then people say
you can't use poetry on stage, people don't speak that way. But Shakespeare
used poetry in his writing. Ultimately it's the actor's challenge to colonize my
words and to make those words his own. I haven't for some time seen any
piece of theatre in this country that has moved me . I think that in a post-
apartheid situation the challenge is to recognize that our writing does not have
to change because the situation has not changed. The socio-political
environment is just the same .We have more freedom of expression in some
ways but less freedom now to challenge the government. If you write about
the Ministers you are called a reactionary. Look at all the corruption, look at
what happens to the pensioners ... it was easy when it was a white government
, we would be quick to write about that. Today you don't really see any piece
that really challenges the guys in power today. It's very unfortunate.
South Mricans have seen what happened in Kenya, in Nigeria and in Somalia.
Ngugi and Wole Soyinka had to move into exile - exiled by their own people
.that they helped to put in positions of power. Theatre is also based on power
and politics. As dramatists we are always coming down to the people's level
and challenging those in power. or should be. We should deal with the ills of
society and if they are governing badly then we should raise this issue
immediately. Here today you can't really do this.
222
D.S. Do you suppose that when the present government has been inpower long
enough to make them feel more secure, when being inpower isno longer a
novelty, that this will improve?
M.M. Very soon people will start toraise significant issues ...likethe Weekly Mail,
that doesn't carry shit. The Weekly Mailjust hits out atthese guys left, right,
and center .but The Weekly Mail isnot aspowerful asatheatre piece .In
social circles today you hear' Are you stillgoing tovote forthe same party in
the next election?' But ifyou did atheatre piece that looked into people's
expectations, whether they were realistic or not, into the promises that were
made to them and the promises that have been broken ...Those guys upthere
would obviously think you were reactionary. Apart from the political situation
there isalso the economic situation. It's becoming more and more expensive
to go and see atheatre piece. Unfortunately too, Imean, asmuch aswe
make anoise that we need more black people inpositions ofpower, they can
abuse that power. Imean, inthe Jo'burg scene you have these brothers who
are running theatres, the John Kani's, the Walter Chakela's ,the Allan
Joseph's. Goto them for assistance ingetting your theatre piece on stage and
you don't have anyjoy with them .It's becoming akind ofcocoon. You must
still struggle, like we were struggling during the days ofapartheid, toget a
venue for your work. InDurban Icould easily call you or Kriben and say "Hey
man, I'm inDurban can Ihave the Asoka Theatre to perform in?" Ican do
that inDurban but Ican't doitatthe Market Theatre .This frustration makes
you think that we are making the same mistake asthey made insome
communist countries like Cuba where artists were fully funded by the state.
That makes them lazy .Sopeople who make theatre through structures like
Performing Arts Councils they're lousy .The actors don't put effort or energy
into making sure that they do well..Allthey know isthat they have asalary
for somany months. They don't develop themselves.
D.S. You were saying that you can't get atheatre space, but that presupposes that you
want atheatre space ofaparticular kind. Inother words with lighting, seating
,management, sound system, ticket sales, printed programmes and so on .
But there isnothing to prevent theatre from happening out there onthe grass.
M.M. That's exactly what Iamdoing now .Ido adifferent kind oftheatre .butthen
people sayMatsemela isnolonger doing anytheatre because mywork has not
been seen onthe mainstream ..Icreate theatre every day of my life, you see.
I'm fine with that. I'm happy with this approach and I'm not going to find
myself trapped inmainstream theatre again. Itishard though because these
days we no longer have theatrical performances as we used to doat allkinds
ofgatherings, commemorations and soon .
D.S. Would you regard afuneral astheatre?
M.M. Yes.
D.S. Awedding?
223
---_..?
M.M. Yes.
D.S. Theatre isendemic tolifebecause ceremonies goonwhether theMarket Theatre
,StateTheatre, Playhouse, Baxter etc.existed ornot.
M.M Weburied afriend ofmineinWitbank recently .Itwasavery emotional
funeral. Hewas apoet anddidpoetry performances .Atthegraveyard wesaid
'No, notashestoashes .Wewant tocelebate thisman's life'.Weoffered
praise poetry. Itwas apretty emotional theatrical experience ..You couldhear
thepeople crying outloudbecause they weretotally involved. So,you are
right. Awedding isatheatrical experience .Inchurch thepriest isaperformer.
... soistheteacher intheclassroom. There isformal andinformal theatre. In
professional theatre obviously they strivetogetsomepayment forthe
theatrical performances andwhat withthewhole theatre management structure
andallthat being paidverywell andeveryone asking formore payment, it
becomes difficult foryouasaproducer. I'll nevermake that kind ofmoney
with mykind oftheatre unless Ihadasponsor. Idon't have asponsor butI
don't care aboutthat .ButIendupworking fortheactors. Theatre
managements don't say'Let's look atthisplaybyMatsamela andproduce it.'
D.S. LikethePlayhouse Company hasgiven upbeing aproduction house, it's a
venue. They stillprovide akind ofinfrastructure butintheendyou, the
producer, hirethevenue with somefacilities. It's uptoyoutoprovide orto
find funding. TheoldideawasthatthePerforming ArtsCouncils were there
topromote theperformance artsby ,forexample, taking oneofyour plays
andproducing it,injecting intoittechnical andperformance expertise that
would raise thepresentational standard ofthework andencourage further
writing andthehoning ofyour craft .Wecansithere andregret thisbutwhere
dowegofromhere?
M.M. Iforesee asituation inthis country where there willbearevolution. The
mainstream values willjust dieanatural death .Practitioners willbegintouse
new spaces. We'll transform ourgarages intotheatre spaces andcharge
peoplejust enough tosustain youandtheactors. Theatre willbetaken into
theneighbourhood. Imeanthepaceofbuilding theatres inthetownships was
moving faster before '94 After '94 it's gone!
It's very ironic. Ilook atthese black brothers incharge andIsay'Something is
wrong here' There's ascramble nowforwhatthepeople thought the
Performing Arts Councils had. Thepeople thought thatthePerforming Arts
Councils hadalotofmoney andthatthismoney could helpthem realize their
dreams that people talked about before '94 .Thenitstopped when allthe
people incharge were replaced. Theyusedtotalkabout atheatre inSoweto .
It's gone ...noteventhetalkremains. So,youbecome avoice inthe
wilderness. But ifyouhave avision thenyou saytoyourself' Anyway letme
rather beanisland, because thismainstream nonsense isnotgoing tosurvive.
IfwegottheMarket Theatre infrastructure fornothing, andthen create a
corporate body withtheactors - noemployer/employee relationship - all
equally important members ofthe samecompany .Ifwe make alittle money
we splitthat money, andprepare forthenextproduction. Ifweloseweall
lose. That spiritisgone. There isnolonger that solidarity spirit. When
224
actor's look at you today they look at you as an employer. No longer do you
say 'Hey, man, I have this vision, can we get it together and do this
production ?'
D.S. Is that why Bra Gib has given up?
M.M. To some extent but he also tasted television, he tasted film, and there's too
much money in there - probably shocked him. So he wen't through a culture
shock economically. That's my feeling.
D..S. When we were interviewing him he said he had lost faith in the performers
themselves and their 'wrong attitudes' Even when you try a profit share basis
they still complain that there is not enough for them.
M.M. Ya . I think it has very much to do with survival .People don't go to the theatre
as often because there is too much television, too much entertainment at home
. We see the same problem in football in this country, people don't go to the
stadium. But also you can't bullshit people .If the production is not good, it's
not good . I'm not gonna get out of my room at night to come and see
nonsense on stage .Even new young actors must be good. We've got to
respect the stage, so that we can have audiences, If you know that the
producer has a good reputation and the actors you know are good and the
group has a tradition of producing good work, then something drives you to
get out of your house and go there. Going out to see a piece of theatre is a
ritual in itself. You need this intellectual and spiritual satisfaction. You need
it as an audience, you're part of the performance. You can only get to this
kind of theatre when you can be sure that the performers respect the
performance, not just the pay. Performers today put their emphasis on the pay
. That's why I'm saying that since '94 things have really changed. There is a
need for a revolution. The people who feel that they have been shunned by the
mainstream need to create their own revolution. That's what Spike Lee did
with what he called Spike's Joint. He had to grow a certain group of actors,
performers, film practitioners - grow with them from scratch .Now that he
has gone very big he still uses the same people that he struggled with. It takes
you back to how the Serpent Players started ,how Soyikwa started. Today the
actors just look at who has the money. They end up not having a 'home' and
they don't build up a group tradition. Some you could say have a sense of
tradition. The New Theatre Company has this tradition, Soyikwa has this
tradition, Ronnie Govender has this tradition. Theatre, it's like life, it's like
a marriage. It's something that evolves, that you develop. There is struggle
and conflict but these are solved as a team. Now actors just hang around the
Market Theatre and Albert street looking for ajob . They see a producer and
they run for you . 'Hey what play are you doing?' They want ajob but they
don't know my tradition. I mean a Gibson Kente actor, if he's going to come
and work for me , I will have to break him first from the Gibson Kente
approach .. I have to break that link so that I can bring him to what I want him
to do . You see this on television too, actors think they're still on stage. They
don't any longer seem to understand that ifI'm going to be directed by Dennis
, and he tells me in good time, I study his work, I study the way he works for
six months, a year, I condition my mind to be able to work with Dennis. We
225
don't have that today. Such preparation is non-existent. If! said to John Kani
'I want you to play Steve Biko ' , John being a disciplined actor would say' I
need six to eight months to develop the muscle and the mind for this character
because I'm old now, and he was young then. So, you begin to prepare
yourself . You read about the person, you research the person .By the time
you say 'Who's going to direct? ' and they say 'Gibson Kente ' you can say
'no, I can't be directed by Gibson because his style of direcion and my style
that I want to use to play this part are miles apart.' The actor should prepare
his mind to face the particular ritual of direction. The same thing happens in
America. Louis King, my American producer will say to me ' There's a
brother whose doing a show and he's looking for an African.' Now the
Mrican American actors all want to go as 'Africans' So, we went to this
restaurant and from nowhere this guy came up to me and he asks Louis King'
Is the brother from home? ' and Louis King says 'Ya' Then the man says
:'I'm doing this show man and I'm looking for an Mrican type, you know.'
What was funny was the scramble of the other actors that were hanging about
because they know that most of the producers go there. They could have
almost killed me ! So I said in a loud voice so that they all could hear: ' Look
I'm not an actor, I'm a producer, Ijust write, direct and produce. I would
gladly help you but I'm not an actor.' They don't audition formally. They
audition you everywhere - even in restaurants. But with these African
American actors if the guy gets a role, he goes home to sort himself out , and
he works hard to crack the role.
D.S. Is it not also our different educational backgrounds. Ours is not a literate society
in the sense that our children are not encouraged to read enough. Some of the
students who come to University to do a degree with Drama as a major have
read maybe only two playscripts in their lives and both of these would have
been setworks for matric .They want to do Drama, or Theatre Studies, or
Speech and Drama but they have read no plays, have read no theory. They
have not prepared their minds for the course. So, John Kani will go off and
prepare his mind to undertake a role, but we have to force our students to read
.Reading and research are just not part of the student's mindset .
M.M. It's not part of the mindset , they don't prepare. I mean you see this when you
travel around with actors. I have traveled a lot with actors all over the world.
We went to Berlin and I said to John and Hamilton 'Let's go to East Berlin.
Lets go see the grave of Brecht. They say we work like Brecht so lets go find
out about this man. We have the good fortune of being where the man was
creating his work. ' They will choose to go to a disco. Next day I tell them 'I
was in East Berlin, I smuggled myself in - I needed to go and see the grave of
Brecht. I saw his tombstone. It's an ordinary stone just written BRECHT and
where born and when dead. I saw the National Assembly and the bullet holes
in the walls. I saw what East Berlin looks like .and I understand better why
this man wrote the way he wrote. Now when I read Brecht I understand his
environment.' If you say to an actor today' Look this is a very important role
, I want you to prepare yourself for this part. Go away and bring it back in
eight months time.' The guy says' Eight months ! I need ajob right now !'
Instead of getting another job in between and saying 'Look I'm already booked
in October, so I can only do something else between now and say September,
226
these guys just jump in . Then what also happens is you cast the guy and the
next day when he's supposed to start rehearsals he says' No, man, I'm going
to Cuba. I have this wonderful show ... ' , But I booked you ... !!!'
D.S. We've just had that happen.
M.M. Look at Denzel Washington. He waited for very good roles .He refused to play
a lot of roles. He always said ' I want to read the script first and see whether I
fit the role. IfI don't think it's right for me I'm not gonna do it . He waited
and waited and then came the role of Steve Biko . He says: ' I went to Africa
a couple of times to see ifI could play the role ... I couldn't come to South
Africa but I went to Zimbabwe They were going to film in Zimbabwe. I came
back home for the first time and I looked like everybody but I couldn't speak
like everybody .They spoke differently. and I said are you going to be able to
handle this? Biko had this Xhosa accent.' Then he said he had to prepare his
mind by saying 'I'm not just dealing with this man .I could be that man. This
man could be American, he could be anything. It's the ideas of the man that I
want to put into the performance.' So, he didn't bother with the accent.
As writers too we need to be prepared to stand outside my theatre and look at
myself. You have to stand back because you may not be aware that you are
creating shit theatre. In the same way that when you do get a chance to
publish your work and you look at it again twenty years down the line. When
you read it you say: 'Is this me ? How could I have possibly written this? The
characters don't gel .You begin to crit yourself. Most writers in this country
don't get the chance to do this and as a result we don't see the critics as
partners in the business of making art . We see them as enemies.
D.S .... and I will only take the review seriously ifit improves my box office returns
or ruins the show financially.
M.M. Exactly. They never say: ' Hey that's true, this man has helped me '
D.S. But many critics just seem to tell the story in their own words and offer precious
little critical commentary good or bad .How does that help?
M.M. Ya. Ya. Critics should say:' Now I'm going to write a review, an honest
review of this piece, and if the man is angry with me , I don't give a shit!
There's an audience out there that also saw the piece and they also have an
impression about that piece.'
D.S How many black African critics do you know.
M.M. There are some reporters - I don't call them critics. They read the press
releases and the press releases come out as reviews .. We once called a
meeting with Agrey , you know with the newspapers, Agrey wasn't there.
We phoned the newspapers as representing the African Writers Association
.and said: ' You are dealing with reviews of books by we do not find people
who review the works of black African writers .Can we help? Can we bring
people in as freelancers to write for your newspaper? ' The point was
misunderstood. Reporters are inundated with so many jobs - sports writing,
227
crime reporting, - go to this funeral - go to this court case, oh and then go
and do a review of this theatre piece. I mean the guy doesn't specialize in
anything. Sometimes they even review 'by remote' The guy is given tickets
to go to the theatre. He goes to the shebeen. He listens to what people say
who were at the show. Then he takes the press releases and he writes as
though he had been there. There is one white critic here who falls asleep five
minutes after every show starts. Then five minutes before the end he watches
again. Then he comes with this brilliant review ...then you get worried.
D.S. There seems to be a great need to train theatre and literary critics. There also
seems to be a need to train black directors ( as distinct from those who create
and direct their own shows ). The art of direction per se is not being developed
M.M. Yes. It is not being developed. As writers we , you know, direct our own
pieces. I mean someone like Zakes Mda doesn't really direct that much. I
would like to direct his work. If you direct the work of other people you also
develop your own writing, because you begin to see what other people do,
what devices they use. We don't direct enough like we don't read enough. I
mean today we don't read, a lot of writers don't read. They hardly have a
chance to proofread their own writings. You see this reading thing, let me say
, is a challenge particularly amongst us black folks.
D.S. Not only amongst black folks I can assure you.
M.M. No . But you are right. There is a need to train black directors, black critics.
We need people who will say 'I'm going to get my drama degee, and I'm
gonna specialize in the critical analysis of playscripts and performances. We
need this skill. People go and watch a piece of theatre and they come out and
say' brilliant' or 'nice' or 'nonsense' They can talk about it but they couldn't
put words on paper to review
the performance. Which is why when we started Soyikwa we had a course in
Analysis .It was compulsory for every student. All students must see five
plays and review them. They must also read five plays and review them. If
they don't do that they don't qualify .People said I was sick or crazy and that I
was pushing my line as a writer, as an intellectual. They would say 'We are
into performance - not into this shit.' I said 'If you don't analyze and research
how do you read scripts as an actor?' If you are in a play about Chris Hani
you go and read about Chris Hani's life. You don't only read the play about
Chris Hani , you study the entire life of Chris Hani - his background,
everything. By the time you play the role you are fully informed and prepared
.You can even say to the director 'No.Chris would not say it like that.' That's
a good actor. Today students don't give any teacher a challenge. So , the
teachers don't worry. They don't even prepare a lesson. The teacher can walk
into class and just run down the kids because they don't even know what the
teacher is talking about in class because they haven't read anything.
D.S. And this problem you tried to address at Soyikwa?
228
M.M. Yes. Butwe also saidtotheMarket Theatre thatwhen independent producers
come inweexpect theMarket tomake surethatthecraft isgood. Instead of
just joining inthechorus ofcriticisms. Wesaid'You havethe infrastructure.
You're partofus,we're doingthisthing withyou. Ifyou seethere is
something wrong, you should come earlier intherehearsals and sayso..
That's why youneed togiveourproduction companies the space foratleast
two orthree weeks ofrehearsals. Then callinyour Artistic Director'. What is
anArtistic Director? What ishisrole inthecompany? He should seethe
productions inrehearsal andnottelluswhat todo,butoffer constructive
criticism toimprove them. Imean, someproductions were bad. Isaidto
John' How doyouactually allowthistobeputon?Because Itake itthatwhat
goes onstage here, you approved.' Thenhewould laugh andI'd say:'No
John, this isserious. Ifwe arepartners inmaking thisbusiness work by
increasing audiences, wehavegottocreate responsibly.'
D.S.How doyouanswer thepointthatfilmandtelevision andeventheprinted media
reach audiences numbered inthehundred's ofthousands andeven millions on
occasion whereas youputonashowforthree weeks andifyouarevery lucky
youplaytoanaverage oftwo hundred anight. So, thepower oftheatre
cannot lie onlyinthenumber ofpeople whowitness thework live.
M.M. No.It's notinnumbers. Formeit's theimmediacy ofthething. Toseea
performer sustain acharacter, everyday, every night forthree hours onthe
stage .You know that everynighttheperformance willbedifferent. It's not
'canned'. You cangoandseethepiece again andsay'No. man, thisthing
hasimproved .'
D.S. Yes.Asyou sayintheatre wenever getthesameperformance twice .because of
theliving interaction between aperformer andtheaudience; anaudience that
isalso always changing incharacter. There isalsothe living andchanging
relationship between performers onstage. Theaudience andtheperformance
inter-react inanorganic waytocreate meaning.
M.M. But sothatthiscanhappen weneed neighbourhood venues. Theatre needs to
happen within theenvironment where people live. But suchvenues should
alsobeused forsocialfunctions andgatherings aswell sothat itbecomes a
vibrant living space forthecommunity - notjust formainstream theatre.
D.S. Yesandofcourse your Union meetings, rallies etcdoalsohave elements of
dance, singing andtheatrical pieces woven intotheevents. The strictdivisions
between theatre andfuneral, performance andprotest rally, simply disappear
.Thedivide seems tocome about whenyoubecome professional andhaveto
earnaliving from performance.
M.M. Yes. When youareyoung youareenergetic, you're angry, you're radical,
youfeelyouarecreating arevolution through thisparticular artform. You
perform forpeanuts intownship halls orincommunity halls andthen maybe
youbecome bigandhitthefront pageofnewspapers .Youjoin mainstream
theatre with itslighting, sound, airconditioning. Formeitdoesn't mean you
should notbepartofthemainstream butperformers there tendtoforget where
229
they come from Even if you are in mainstream you are still part of the
community that makes theatre informally as part of the struggle Again we
would say to John Kani :' Look you won't perform in a venue without lights
in Soweto because you use light as part of your acting ... but you come from a
tradition of no spots !'
D.S. Woza Albert!' _Could perform anywhere.
M.M. Exactly Woza Albert! Could go anywhere. Sizwe Banzi is Dead could go
anywhere. The Island could go anywhere. John will say: 'I will perform, but
don't invite me and say you are producing a work off mainstream . Then you
put me in a situation where I may jeopardize my whole career. ' So he needed
to balance the two .
When you reach the stage where theatre is no longer like a ritual, a vehicle for
liberation, you are trained, you've studied, you are experienced, you're a
professional. It's almost like a doctor .You can't say I'll just go anywhere and
treat patients anywhere .You need a surgery with suitable instruments and so
on . Of course if someone is ill on a bus you are still able to help that person
and this is the connection for me . Sure, look at the professional theatre as a
way oflife , as a way of enriching yourself but don't forget the connection. I
think you can enrich yourself even in informal theatre .I believe in a return to
informal theatre and that there are more possibilities in rural theater than urban
areas.
D.S. In Britain, America and on the continent, as you know, it is the amateur
dramatic movements that in many ways sustain mainstream theatre. Do you
think that the encouragement of amateur dramatics in the form of High School
play festivals, eisteddfods, amateur dramatic societies would help. As an
amateur performer pay is not the motive for participation. There are other
dynamics involved here.
M.M. Yes it would . You see if a guy is working for a living and doing theatre,
theatre for him is an important tool, it's not just for generating income. And
it's true, amateur theatre is the work that sustains professional theatre .But
again you need a neighbourhood community venue for this. A lot of amateur
groups do operate like social clubs. Like a society of women will meet every
Sunday to do a theatrical presentation but they are not working at this full time
.Out of this group someone may develop the skill and be so good at it that they
see an opportunity to move into it full-time.
D. S The Department of Arts and Culture puts money into Performing Arts Councils to
encourage the growth of professional theatre, don't you think that they should
also put money into regional festivals of the arts for amateur participation?
M.M. This is theatre for community development that we have spoken about so much
in the past .You see the Market Theatre is not a theatre for community
development. It's a professional theatre space. If you are talking about
developing a community move into a school classroom. Create a theatre
tradition there and when they begin to realize that performance is possible
even in informal venues you become strong to survive and you create works
230
like Sizwe Banzi is dead , Egoli , and Woza Albert. In this kind of theatre
you arrive anywhere ,_you perform anywhere, you don't even need the script.
You are a group of six, maybe three are not there. The three that are there
take over the roles of those who are not. Thirty minute performance and it's a
theatrical experience. Now if you have a budget of three million you are not
gonoa develop any community. You are just going to chow that money . You
will create amazing sets, expensive unnecessary costumes It can still be a
good production of its kind but the only way for us to return to the kind of
theatre we want is for them to freeze funding for all Performing Arts Councils.
Freeze it altogether. If you want to do that kind of theatre, go find the money
for it and see whether you can survive. There was far more exciting theatre
with no money. When there is too much money, for me , that's when theatre
becomes decadent. Like the painter whose works sell for a hundred-thousand
no longer wishes to know people like he knew when his paintings sold for a
couple of hundred.
D.S. And he begins to paint for his market.
M.M. Exactly .. He begins to paint for his market and then painting becomes self-
imposed censorship of your creative imagination.
D.S .... and he does this because it sells.
M.M You begin to develop a formula. You start with the budget . You say for this
piece I will need about a hundred and fifty thousand .because Winston
Ntshona is going to cost me so much per week. In the past you would say :
'Okay guys this play is very important, Heritage day is around the corner
.We've got to make this statement. We have a motive.' Today so much
theatre is made without a motive. That's why we have actors who are so
useless that they take on any script - they say: 'It's a job.' Theatre is no
longer dealing with the challenges of our immediate lives. It is separated from
life .. They can go on stage and do this shit even if! don't agree with it . They
say;' I'm working, It's ajob.'
Just look at the state of television drama in this country. It is so bad and that is
because to get good television drama we need good stage actors. They are the
ones who can be directed well for television .. Right now you can't tell the
difference between television acting and stage acting. It's the same for Gibson
Kente .We were very happy that at long last there was a man in television
production who has been part of our theatre for years. He has all this
experience. Now let's see what he can do for the television medium. It was
disappointing. I think the problem is that theatre is a collective effort .. It is not
an individual effort. You work as a group and use all the expertise in the
group. That is where good actors can help you as a director. But of course you
must have the time and space in which to work and that's not how its done
where time is money and space is costed out by the minute. That's why for
me there's a need for a revolution. Fire all the workers, PACT workers, all
who are full-time with the Performing Arts Councils. Let them struggle to find
money for their productions. You look at Pieter Tourien . How does he
sustain his theatre without any funding? He has to work hard and he has to
231
make surethat anybody who moves into histheatre space works sohard to
make surethat they can generate more money. We need to impress funders ,
impress the sponsors, impress the audiences sothat they come more and more
to support us,andthis isthe way to sustain ourselves.
D.S.Yes. Ittook agreat effort totransform the Board atNAPACfor example but
now that itis racially representative we findthat theBoard members don't
even come to seetheir own shows.
M.M. Why have aBoard that don't careabout professional involvement 7Some of
them Iknow don't even attend Board meetings regularly., just like some of
our ministers who fall asleep inparliament. Why arethey ministers 7 Some
will even skip aparliamentary session. Imean people have lost asense of
respect and motivation. Why arethey doing it7Money. Imean, ifIsayI
want tobealecturer inDramatic arts, ...forChrist's sake ... every time Igo
into that lecture room Imust beprepared. Imust beready to deliver forthese
kids because Ihave amotive. Iwant totrain these children, Iwant toprepare
them forthe future .Formetheatre was preparing usinterms ofsocial and
political transformation, interms ofempowerment, interms ofsaying we are
achanging society here. We aretaking society through the endless process of
transformation and development .andtheatre isourtool forunderstanding this
D.S. Sothen there isaconstant need for revolution. 7
M.M. Society isalways inastate oftransition because culture isdynamic .Sofor
example, when Istarted writing Iused alotofwords .Then when IdidPula I
said :'No ,not more than eight pages oftext .Iwant to use physical expression
andcombine itwith verbal expression because audiences aretoo lazyto listen
and can't concentrate inatheatre space formore than forty five minute' I
mean, why don't we dothirty minute theatre pieces, orten minutes forthat
matter .7
D.S. Zakes Mda's pieces are short .
M.M. They arevery short because people don't read today. Asthat Italian dramatist
Dario Fo says:' Even inour dreams there are commercials.' People's
concentration span issolow now that ifyou come with astrong international
piece people say: 'No, man- What's onatKippies letshave afew shots and
listen to somejazz. I But our whole lifehas changed. Iwant to doapiece on
black society today .What we don't seemtounderstand isthat when you give
people certain freedoms and rights the whole pattern ofour lives changes and
we meet awhole lotofchallenges. The oldtraditional lifechanges. But of
course traditions also protect andempower people. Without this we seewhat
we seetoday inblack society, black divorce, suicide Inplace oftradition we
put democracy. Before this interview you were talking about Human Rights
Day. Ithink we need aHuman Responsibility Day. People mustn't shuntheir
responsibilities and inartwe have lostthat sense ofresponsibility .We must
take responsibility andbebrave ifwe aregoing tomake abrave statement .In
theatre you aregonna shiton someone, you aregonna shitonyourself .You
232
are gonna say things that other people are not gonna like. That's why I like
Terror Lekota when he was shitting on those guys who were not going to this
provincial council meeting. He said: 'What the hell are you employed for?
As a minister you are here to demonstrate your responsibilities, not your
rights. You have no right to sleep in parliament' It's like actors who forget
their lines and then say: 'It's my democratic right to improvise'
D.S. Do you see a distinctive genre that you could label' Black Theatre' in South
Africa?
M.M. Yes and no. As Steve would say ,historically we would want to call ourselves
black because of the oppressive situation we come from. We refer to black
theatre, black music because it is created by people with Black Consciousness
. But it's difficult. If a white person writes a play that reflects very accurately
the black experience and it is performed by black people, do you still call it
black theatre? What do you call that kind of theatre ? You also get into shit
with the brother who says: 'I'm a theatre artist not a township theatre artist. I
live in the suburbs, so now what do you call me ?' I mean I call this African
Theatre because it comes from Africa in the same way that we call it European
Theatre because it comes from Europe. But if I learn about the European
experience, and I am living in Europe and I write a play about this, is that
European Theatre ?
D.S. It seems very difficult to pin this down. Fugard is a white African and is part
presumably of Mrican Theatre.
M.M. I think this brings us to the concept of the Mrican Renaissance; the need for
the reawakening of Mrica and the need to redefine ourselves within a space
which is not as oppressive as it was in the past .What is an African? That is a
critical question. Some people think that this refers exclusively to native
Mricans. But no ... there are white people as well in this country who see
themselves as African. They were born here and will define themselves as
African. If you see a black player in a British soccer team, you say he's
British because he lives there. In terms of what is or isn't black theatre we
should look at the form rather than the content . You know when you read
Soyinka you call it Mrican theatre because you know or you were told it's by
Soyinka but if you just read it without knowing you may think: 'This is a
European piece' Sometimes academic definitions can be very frustrating and
problematic.
D.S. Definitions can be restrictive and problematic and maybe that's the problem.
Maybe we are too young experientially to define exactly what we mean by
Mrican Theatre or black theatre.
M.M. Ya. First must come what Ngugi talks about - de-colonizing the minds of
African people both black and white. That civilization did not begin Europe.
Civilization began all over the world. People developed in different ways and
at different paces in different directions. But whilst the European world
developed into an academic and literary world, Africa did not. So now it still
has a problem of defining itself and understanding itself Even the African
233
----------------------' ?.
classics, stories by Mrican writers in our own mother tongues, in our own
African languages, we never had respect for these . I even made an effort at
school to produce a play in my own mother tongue. We were studying
Mrican Drama but we could not relate to the course. We even grew up with
the idea that African writers were not revolutionary because to be a
revolutionary writer you were supposed to write in English for Staffrider But
as we grew up and grew closer to the struggle we began to say; , Hey, when I
write a book I can use these elements that these guys used. ' You know like
the descriptive elements about the mountains, the rivers, the weather,
understanding your country, understanding the place you live in . We as
'African' writers who were
revolutionary in political terms had a low sense of description, almost zero .
We were top of the agenda when it came to complaining, but not to describe
Durban so that someone who doesn't know the place can see it when he or she
reads your words or watches your play. There is this white writer who is
paraplegic ...
D.S. Lionel Abrams.
M.M. Yes. I used to call him in to do literary sessions with Soyikwa students. It was
difficult because you need the tools of language. You must read and study the
language first. you must really understand the language .As professor
Mpahlele says: ' You cannot break English if you don't know it '. How do
you experiment if you don't know the form? You cant break with tradition if
you don't know the tradition. If! want to divorce there is a tradition in my
culture. I have to go to my uncle and say,: ' Look you arranged for me to
marry this wife, now I have had enough, I want a divorce. Can you go to the
family and say: 'Look it didn't work' I don't rush to the courts and sign
documents .It wasn't a document that led us to marry, it was the meeting of
families. so let the families meet to solve or to adjust the situation. Of course
you can say: 'Fuck the families! I'll go straight to court, I have the right,
you're an adult. You signed the piece of paper , that's it .'
D,S, It's your democratic right.
M.M. It's your democratic irresponsibility! No, education is in crisis. We have very
few black writers and its an effort to read Gibson Kente , or Mbongeni .
D.S. I find the writing very repetitive ... but there are reasons for this.
M.M. Ya, repetitive. If you talk writers, I would want to read Zkes Mda ,as you
know. But I'm sorry I have to run now. You Dennis and Mahendra must keep
up the work you are doing. This too is all part of the Renaissance movement.
D.S. Thank you Matsemela for a most valuable interview.
234