Doctoral Degrees (General Linguistics)

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Communicating taboo topics in gynaecological consultations in Malawi : a sociolinguistic study on effective strategies used in a conservative culture
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2022-03) Chirwa Kajombo, Marion; Mongie, Lauren; Southwood, Frenette; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of General Linguistics.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The clinical gaze, which is the combination of doctor expertise and information obtained from and on the patient, is the basis of diagnosis and prognosis (Foucault 1975). As such, open doctor-patient communication becomes a prerequisite for successful medical consultations. However, in a generally conservative Malawian cultural context, gynaecological topics are considered taboo, especially when discussed across genders. Despite the conflict between biomedical requirements of openness and sociocultural requirements of silence about gynaecology-related topics, consultations with male gynaecologists, who outnumber female gynaecologists in Malawi, are conducted. However, the nature of communication in these consultations was not known. This study therefore investigated the nature of gender-discordant communication about topics related to sex, women’s bodies, reproduction, and infertility in Malawian gynaecological consultations. This qualitative study is embedded in a sociolinguistic theoretical framework, making use of Situated Discourse Analysis (Gee 2011), Interactional Sociolinguistics (Gumperz 1982, 2015), and X-phemism Theory (Allan & Burridge 2006) to study Chichewa-dominant interactions between male gynaecologists and their patients in a public hospital in Blantyre. The study hospital is a district and referral hospital treating emergency cases referred by other, smaller healthcare facilities. There were two participant groups (all Chichewa-speaking Malawians), namely four gynaecologists practicing at the study hospital, and 12 women who had consulted a gynaecologist at least once in the 12 months prior to data collection. Individual interviews were conducted with the patient participants. They were asked questions about their communication experiences in gynaecological consultations (such as, which terms they found appropriate, whether and, if so, how culture influenced their communication, what discourse strategies they have experienced gynaecologists using), using an audio-recording they had listened to at the beginning of the interview as prompt. This scripted audio-recording was of a simulated gynaecological consultation in Chichewa. The gynaecologists were also interviewed individually, amongst others on discourse strategies used and the influence of culture on Malawian gynaecological practice. Eight simulated gynaecological consultations also took place, with eight patient participants each consulted one participating gynaecologist on a medical condition of her choice. (Each gynaecologist was therefore involved in two simulated consultations.) The interviews and simulated consultations were audio-recorded, transcribed and analysed thematically; by means of Interactional Sociolinguistic methods (Gumperz 1982, 2015) and Situated Discourse Analysis (Gee 2011). Further, taboo referring expressions were analysed using the X-phemism Theory (Allan & Burridge 2006). From the perspectives of former patients and practicing gynaecologists drawn from the interviews and simulated consultations, it was found that: (i) communicating about culturally taboo topics was indeed a challenge, which (ii) could be overcome by establishing relationship boundaries and identities of interlocutors and by using negative politeness strategies; (iii) sociocultural principles were involved in acceptability judgements on Chichewa terms used to refer to sex-related matters; and (iv) the current practice in gynaecological consultations was deemed successful but could improve. In short, this study found that despite cultural restrictions on discussing topics such as sexual health and reproduction, sociolinguistic strategies are used to achieve the goals of gynaecological consultations in the culturally conservative Malawian context.
The comprehension and production of later developing language constructions by Afrikaans-, English- and isiXhosa-speaking Grade 1 learners
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2015-04) Nel, Joanine Hester; Southwood, Frenette; Conradie, Simone; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of General Linguistics.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study investigated the comprehension and production of articles, quantifiers, binding relations and passive constructions as later developing constructions (LDCs) by 27 Grade (Gr) 1 monolingual Afrikaans-speaking learners with Afrikaans as language of learning and teaching (LOLT), 31 bilingual isiXhosa-speaking learners with English as LOLT and 31 monolingual isiXhosa-speaking learners with isiXhosa as LOLT in three non-fee-paying schools, each in a different low socio-economic status area, in the Stellenbosch area of the Western Cape Province in South Africa. The overarching aim of this study was to determine which LDCs these learners are capable of comprehending and producing at the start of Gr 1 and what progress they make in terms of these LDCs during their Gr 1 year. The English and isiXhosa LOLT groups were then compared on how they fared on the LDCs in their respective LOLTs in order to ascertain whether the English language proficiency of the English group is at such a level at the start of Gr 1 that they can, without disadvantage, undergo schooling successfully in English. Data were collected on articles, binding relations, quantifiers and passive constructions by using the informal language assessment instrument, the Receptive and Expressive Activities for Language Therapy (Southwood & Van Dulm 2012a), which makes use of picture selection- and pointing tasks for assessment of comprehension and sentence completion, picture description- and question answering tasks for assessment of production. The results showed that for the Afrikaans and English groups all four LDCs are indeed later developing and are only mastered after the end of Gr 1. For the isiXhosa group, quantifiers and passive production are mastered by the end of Gr 1. In terms of the language-in-education and teaching policy, the results show that the time allocated to listening to and producing language in Gr 1 is sufficient for children whose first language is also their LOLT, whereas it is not sufficient in the case of English additional language learners. The latter group made significant progress in all LDCs assessed, but still performed worse than their isiXhosa-speaking peers, for whom there was a match between first language and LOLT. The implication of the results are that (i) the Foundation Phase school curriculum should be refined so as to consider the needs of all Gr 1 learners, as learners enter Gr 1 with different language skills and different levels of preparation for the tasks which lie before them, (ii) teachers should be assisted to foster the development of language skills in additional language learners, and (iii) the institution of a universal Gr R year, which is free to those who cannot afford school fees, should be considered a necessity. Without ensuring that all children enter Gr 1 with an adequate language foundation on which literacy development can build, historical inequalities still present in South Africa will likely be perpetuated rather than systematically removed.
Construction of linguistic identities among cross-border communities: The case of Samia of Uganda and Samia of Kenya
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2017-03) Nahayo, Sylvia; Oostendorp, Marcelyn; Southwood, Frenette; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of General Linguistics.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This dissertation investigated the discursive identity construction of a community who is separated by a national border. The town of Busia cuts across the Ugandan/Kenyan border and the community language is considered to be Lusamia. The study used ethnographic methods to investigate how speakers of Lusamia on both sides of the border construct their linguistic identities in relation to their own linguistic repertoires and the linguistic repertoires of others. My theoretical interest in this was sparked by a gap in the literature, namely, that most studies which investigate language and identity construction within multilinguals focus on urban communities. Although early sociolinguistic studies within the ethnographic tradition, focused on rural communities (Gumperz 1971, 1964; Hymes 1962, 1964), recently the city has become the most frequently studied setting for multilingualism. My study builds on a small (but growing) body of research on contemporary multilingualism in rural African communities (see for example Banda and Jimaima 2015); Deumert and Mabandla 2013). Against this backdrop, I examined how speakers of Lusamia that live in a rural community and are multilingual negotiate different linguistic identities just like their counterparts in the urban centers. My study will thus turn the attention (back) on the everyday linguistic practices of a rural, multilingual community within an African context. Data for this study were collected using various ethnographically informed methods. The data collection instruments included observations, interviews and a survey of the linguistic landscape. Linguistic landscapes are defined as ―the language of public road signs, advertising billboards, street names, place names, commercial shop signs, etc.‖ (Landry and Bourhis, 1997: 25). Data were collected over a period of 12 months and analysed through thematic analysis (Starks and Trinidad, 2007). Two major themes emerged, that is: multilingualism as linguistic repertoire and the interplay of language, spacialisation and identity. Findings from this study suggest that participants typically have a range of linguistic resources in their repertoire. These linguistic resources are used differently by the speakers depending on the situation they are in. Sometimes the lack of the required linguistic resources(s) in a particular situation may exclude the speaker or lead to failure in communication. Furthermore, as Busch (2012) observes, the linguistic repertoire does not only include actual linguistic varieties used, but also ideologies about language. In the two countries in which Lusamia is spoken (Kenya and Uganda), different linguistic resources may be used or understood. This interaction of the different linguistic resources with Lusamia explains the subtle differences in accent and word choice in the speech of participants on both sides of the border. These differences are constructed as the distinguishing features between the Ugandan and Kenyan varieties of Samia. Thus as Samia speakers engage in various activities that call for use of different linguistic resources, they constantly negotiate different linguistic identities. Furthermore, the identity of Samia speakers is very much a multilingual one. Even rituals evolving major milestones or major events (birth, marriage, death) are performed through the use of heteroglossic meaning-making resources. In view of the results, I suggest that more research into language and identity needs to take a multilingual, spatial perspective
The development of cognitive processes and English language abilities : the case of early English language learners in a multilingual South African setting
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2018-12) White, Michelle Jennifer; Southwood, Frenette; Simonsen, Hanne Gram; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of General Linguistics.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study was to investigate the development of English language skills and the processes which underlie these skills in English Language Learners (ELLs) who are in their first year of formal schooling, Grade R. Twenty seven ELL participants were assessed longitudinally, three times over the course of their Grade R year, on an English language assessment battery, including the domains of syntax, semantics and pragmatics, along with a vocabulary test. Additionally, the processes underlying language acquisition were assessed with the use of working memory tasks, two phonological working memory tasks and two visuospatial working memory tasks. The English language and working memory development of the 27 ELLs were compared to seven English monolingual classmates in order to determine how their trajectory and rate of development related to one another. A total of nine different first languages (L1s) were represented in the ELL group, namely (ordered from that spoken by most of the highest to the lowest number of ELLs) isiXhosa, Shona, French, Swahili, isiZulu, Sesotho, Oshiwambo, Igbo and Cameroonian Pidgin English. Moreover, most of the ELL group knew at least one language besides their L1 and English. All participants were from one low socio-economic status school, where the sole language of learning and teaching (LoLT) is English. South Africa, with its 11 official languages and several other minority languages, is linguistically and culturally diverse, yet English continues to be the preferred LoLT (Heugh, 2000). Many South African children are thus ELLs who have little English proficiency upon entering school. The differing levels of English proficiency at school entry, together with a wide range of first languages in one classroom, pose teaching challenges. One of these challenges is that a certain level of proficiency in English is required to perform well academically in an English-medium school. It is widely accepted that academic success is highly dependent on language competence (Hoff, 2005; Owens, 2008), entailing that an understanding of the underlying processes related to language is crucial for assisting learners to perform well academically. Moreover, measures of non-linguistic processing, such as working memory, provide important information on language development in multilingual contexts (Paradis, 2010). Results from this study showed evidence for the three distinctions within working memory stipulated by Baddeley and Hitch (1974): the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad and the central executive. The phonological loop and the central executive were found to be implicated in the ELLs’ English language development. It was also found that their performance on the tasks assessing these two components were predictive of outcomes on certain language domains. Furthermore, this study also found that both the ELLs and the English monolinguals showed a comparable growth trajectory to each other on the language as well as the working memory tasks. These findings contribute to the broadening of our knowledge of bilingual development, in the domains of working memory and English language learning. The South African education system is in crisis and further studies, such as this one, are needed in order to better inform practical solutions.
The discourse of liberation: the portrayal of the gay liberation movement in South African news media from 1982 to 2006
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2013-12) Mongie, Lauren Danger; Anthonissen, Christine; Southwood, Frenette; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of General Linguistics.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This dissertation reports on a study that straddles the applied linguistic fields of discourse analysis, critical discourse analysis and a sociolinguistic field recently referred to as “queer linguistics”. The study investigated the linguistic construction of gay mobilisation in South African media discourses across a period of almost 30 years. It aimed to identify characteristics of the Discourse that topicalised the gay liberation movement, considering specifically the linguistic means used in articulating on the one hand the need and the right to gay liberation, and on the other hand the public opposition to acknowledging gay rights. It invoked a social theory identified as ‘framing theory’ in analysing the different kinds of views, attitudes, social positions and arguments motivating for or agitating against the institution and protection of gay rights in post-apartheid South Africa. The project takes Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), particularly its applications in considering features and functions of media discourses, as its primary theoretical framework. First, following the insistence of the Discourse-historical approach put forward by Wodak (1990), it gives an overview of the social and historical context against which the recognition of gay rights in South Africa developed. It follows the analytic methodology suggested by van Dijk (1985) in considering issues of ‘language and power’, and the ways in which the access of elites to media attention is drawn on to support and give credence to particular ideologies. Supplementary to the application of CDA methods, an analytic approach from the fields of Social Movement Theory and Collective Action Framing is introduced to make sense of the discursive strategies implemented in the Discourse thematically tied to the South African gay liberation movement, particularly from the early 1980s up to 2006. This period was marked by the movement’s pursuit of social mobilization. Attention went to the ways in which arguments for and against gay rights were instantiated in the media using a variety of different frames. Such analysis could disclose the extent to which the "anti-apartheid" master frame was utilised by actors of the gay liberation movement. Based on their circulation demographics, two local South African weekly newspapers, City Press and Mail & Guardian, were screened in order to identify articles and letters to the editor relevant to the gay liberation discourse. The full complement of published items topicalising homosexuality directly and indirectly were collected as two corpora in order to assess the ways in which they contributed to public discourses of gay liberation. Two analytic exercises were done: first, the content of the full data-set was “tagged” and categorised according to the textual nature of the newspaper item, and the kinds of frames used in its presentation; second, a number of articles and letters were selected from the corpora for detailed analysis that would illustrate the use of the various strategies and frames found to characterise the Discourse. The first more quantitative analysis provided an overview of patterns, trends and editorial practices typically used in the media representations. The second more qualitative analysis provided insight into the finer details of media presention of ideas aimed at affecting the knowledge and attitudes of the intended and imagined readers. The findings of these analyses were presented in terms of quantifiable results as well as detailed descriptions. In broad strokes, the quantifiable findings showed that the Mail & Guardian corpus was significantly more outspoken in advocating for gay rights than the City Press corpus, and that both publications frequently framed homosexuality in terms of “tolerance”, “religion” and “rights”. The quantifiable findings also showed that in their discourses of gay tolerance and gay rights, both the City Press and the Mail & Guardian made significant use of frames typically and widely used by the media in the discourse of political change at the time. The detailed analyses investigated the textual reproduction of the authors’ ideologies, drawing attention to their regular reliance on certain types of arguments used for and against gay rights in the selected newspapers.
Investigating literacy development among learners with a second language as medium of education : the effects of an emergent literacy stimulation program in Grade R
(Stellenbosch : University of Stellenbosch, 2009-12) Olivier, Johanna M.; Anthonissen, Christine; Southwood, Frenette; University of Stellenbosch. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of General Linguistics.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Addressing the low literacy rates in South Africa poses a mountainous challenge. However, identifying children at risk for reading difficulties and providing timely and preventative intervention might be a good starting point to addressing this challenge. This study aimed at making a contribution to the existing body of literature on emergent literacy skills of learners who are educated in a second or additional language. The study investigated English Language Learners’ (ELLs) emergent literacy skills prior to entering Grade 1 and evaluated the effectiveness of an evidence-based stimulation program in the South African context. The main research question this study attempted to answer was: “What is the effect of a stimulation program for emergent literacy skills in Grade R on the development of literacy of English Language Learners in Grade 1?” In a quasiexperimental design, ELLs’ emergent literacy skills were assessed with an adapted version of the Emergent Literacy Assessment battery (Willenberg 2004) and were compared to those of English first language (L1) and of ELL control groups, both prior to and after an 8-week purpose-designed stimulation program. Results indicated that while learners showed significant improvement on six out of the eight subtests, the particular intervention program did not significantly improve ELLs’ emergent literacy skills (those pertaining to alphabet knowledge, phoneme awareness, print awareness and oral language skills, amongst others) when compared to learners in the respective control groups. When controlling for receptive language abilities, English L1 learners did not perform any better than their L2 peers on any of the eight measures of emergent literacy prior to intervention. Furthermore, upon entering Grade 1, there was no statistical significant difference in the performance of the English L1 learners and ELLs on any of the eight subtests after intervention. Possible independent variables contributing to the dearth of intervention effect included socio-economic status, learners’ L1, and teacher and classroom specific characteristics. These variables were addressed, and clinical implications for speech-language therapists with regards to assessment, intervention, service delivery and outcome measures were highlighted.
Mother tongue education and transition to English medium education in Uganda : teachers perspectives and practices versus language policy and curriculum
(Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2014-12) Ssentanda, Medadi Erisa; Huddlestone, Kate; Southwood, Frenette; Stellenbosch University. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences. Dept. of General Linguistics.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In this dissertation I report on an ethnographic survey study undertaken on bi-/multilingual education in ten primary schools in Uganda. The primary aim of this study was to explore how teachers understand and manage the process of transitioning from mother tongue (MT) education to English as a language of learning and teaching (LoLT). In this study I used a multi-method approach involving questionnaires, classroom observations, follow-up interviews and note taking. Data was analysed using a theme-based triangulation approach, one in which insights gleaned from different sources are checked against each other, so as to build a fuller, richer and more accurate account of the phenomenon under study. This data was gathered firstly from teachers and classes in the first three years of formal schooling (P1 to P3) in order to understand the nature of multilingualism in the initial years of primary schooling and how teachers use MT instruction in preparation for transition to English-medium education that occurs at the end of these three years. Secondly, data from P4 and P5 classes and teachers was gathered so as to examine the manner in which teachers handle transition from MT instruction in P4 and then shift into the use of English as LoLT in P5. The study has identified discrepancies between de jure and de facto language policy that exist at different levels: within schools, between government and private schools in implementing the language-in-education policy, and, ultimately, between the assumptions teachers have of the linguistic diversity of learners and the actual linguistic repertoires possessed by the learners upon school entry. Moreover, the study has revealed that it is unrealistic to expect that transfer of skills from MT to English can take place after only three years of teaching English and MT as subjects and using MT as LoLT. Against such a backdrop, teachers operate under circumstances that are not supportive of effective policy implementation. In addition, there is a big gap between teacher training and the demands placed on teachers in the classroom in terms of language practices. Moreover, teachers have mixed feelings about MT education, and some are unreservedly negative about it. Teachers’ indifference to MT education is partly caused by the fact that MTs are not examined at the end of primary school and that all examination papers are set in English. Furthermore, it has emerged that Uganda’s pre-primary education system complicates the successful implementation of the language-in-education policy, as it is not monitored by the government, is not compulsory nor available to all Ugandan children, and universally is offered only in English. The findings of this study inform helpful recommendations pertaining to the language-ineducation policy and the education system of Uganda. Firstly, there is a need to compile countrywide community and/or school linguistic profiles so as to come up with a wellinformed and practical language policy. Secondly, current language-in-education policy ought to be decentralised as there are urban schools which are not multilingual (as is assumed by the government) and thus are able to implement MT education. Thirdly, the MT education programme of Uganda ought to be changed from an early-exit to a late-exit model in order to afford a longer time for developing proficiency in English before English becomes the LoLT. Fourthly, government ought to make pre-primary schooling compulsory, and MT should be the LoLT at this level so that all Ugandan children have an opportunity to learn through their MTs. Finally, if the use of MT, both as a subject and as a LoLT, is to be enforced in schools, the language of examination and/or the examination of MTs will have to be reconsidered. In summary, several reasons have been identified for the mentioned discrepancies between de jure and de facto language-in-education policy in Uganda. This policy was implemented in an attempt to improve the low literacy levels of Ugandan learners. It therefore appears as if the policy and its implementation will need revision before this achievable aim can be realised as there is great difficulty on the teachers’ side not only in the understanding but also in managing the process of transitioning from MT education to English as LoLT.

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