Does sexual violence alter social behvaiour via a maladaptive HPA-axis?

Date
2023-03
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Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University
Abstract
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Background and Aim: South Africa was identified as the rape capital of the world, recording one of the highest rates of sexual violence worldwide with 72.1 reported cases per 100 000 in the 2019/2020 year. The mental health and well-being of sexual assault survivors exhibit a dysregulated HPA-axis stress response, which may be a primary source of structural and functional alterations leading to PTSD symptoms, but they don’t always co-exist. Chronic stress and psychiatric diseases cause dysregulation of the HPA axis. A cortisol imbalance brought on by the dysregulation of the HPA-axis leads to a decrease in oxytocin secretion, which eliminates oxytocin's potential to attenuate HPA-axis activity. A lack of oxytocin has been linked to broken social and maternal bonds as well as losing relationship attachments as a result of trauma exposure such as sexual violence / rape. Oxytocin dysregulation has been associated in a large variety of dysregulated social behaviour and PTSD diagnosis. Additionally, when bound to cortisol, glucocorticoid receptor sensitivity modifies the stress response's equilibrium point, which in turn regulates the HPA axis's negative feedback loop. As a result, they have been linked to anticipating the effects of stress. Therefore, the aim of this study is to determine whether being subjected to sexual violence alters social behavior via a dysregulated HPA-axis. Methods: Data analysis was completed using PTSD, perceived stress and social support scores to investigate the effects of rape on mental health trajectory. Additionally, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays were used, to explore the role of oxytocin and cortisol as indicators of PTSD in rape-exposed women. Both cortisol and oxytocin found within plasma samples were analysed over a one-year period at four time points (baseline [± twenty days], three months, six months and twelve months post rape) to assess whether these hormone levels, that are activated by sexual violence, were transient or long lasting, and whether these hormone levels may lead to the formation of PTSD. Mixed effect regression analysis were done to determine if cortisol and oxytocin concentrations predict PTSD outcomes. Results: PTSD symptoms significantly decreased overtime, p = 0.000. Similarly, perceived stress, p = 0.0023, and cortisol concentrations, p = 0.004, significantly decreased overtime. Whereas social support scores, p = 0.5851, and oxytocin concentrations, p = 0.995, had no significant changes. Additionally, cortisol concentrations, p = 0.1660, and social support, p = 0.827, were not able to predict PTSD outcome, however oxytocin concentrations, slope = 9.32, p = 0.002 and perceived stress scores, slope = -5.654, p = 0.033, could predict PTSD. Conclusion: These findings demonstrate a relationship between PTSD symptom severity and HPA-axis maladaptation, via augmented oxytocin responses in victims of rape. We conclude that these findings may have significant clinical ramifications for women who have been subjected to rape. Particularly, offering scientific based PTSD interventions to rape exposed victims may show promise in alleviating symptoms and "normalizing" HPA axis receptivity to stress related stimuli.
AFRIKAANS OPSOMMING: Agtergrond en Doelstelling: Suid-Afrika is as die verkragtingshoofstad van die wêreld geïdentifiseer en het een van die hoogste vlakke van seksuele geweld wêreldwyd aangeteken met 72,1 aangemelde gevalle per 100 000 in die 2019/2020-jaar. Die geestesgesondheid en welstand van oorlewendes van seksuele aanranding vertoon 'n gedisreguleerde HPA-as stresrespons, wat 'n primêre bron van strukturele en funksionele veranderinge kan wees wat lei tot PTSV-simptome, maar hulle bestaan nie altyd saam nie. Chroniese stres en psigiatriese siektes veroorsaak disregulering van die HPA-as. 'N Kortisolwanbalans wat veroorsaak word deur die disregulering van die HPA-as, lei tot 'n afname in oksitosienafskeiding, wat oksitosien se potensiaal om HPA-asaktiwiteit te verswak, uitskakel. 'N Gebrek aan oksitosien is gekoppel aan gebroke sosiale en moederlike bande, sowel as die verlies van verhoudingsaanhegtings as gevolg van blootstelling aan trauma soos seksuele geweld / verkragting. Oksitosien disregulasie is geassosieer in 'n groot verskeidenheid dysreguleerde sosiale gedrag en PTSV diagnose. Daarbenewens, wanneer dit aan kortisol gebind word, verander glukokortikoïedreseptorgevoeligheid die stresrespons se ewewigspunt, wat op sy beurt die HPA-as se negatiewe terugvoerlus reguleer. As gevolg hiervan is hulle gekoppel aan die afwagting van die gevolge van stres. Daarom is die doel van hierdie studie om vas te stel of seksuele geweld sosiale gedrag via 'n gedisreguleerde HPA-as verander. Metodes: Data-analise is voltooi met behulp van PTSV, waargenome stres en sosiale ondersteuning tellings om die uitwerking van verkragting op geestesgesondheidstrajek te ondersoek. Daarbenewens is ensiemgekoppelde immunosorbent-toetse gebruik om die rol van oksitosien en kortisol as aanwysers van PTSV by verkragting-blootgestelde vroue te ondersoek. Beide kortisol en oksitosien wat in plasmamonsters gevind is, is oor 'n tydperk van een jaar op vier tydpunte (basislyn [± twintig dae], drie maande, ses maande en twaalf maande na verkragting) ontleed om te bepaal of hierdie hormoonvlakke, wat deur seksuele geweld geaktiveer word, verbygaande of langdurig was, en of hierdie hormoonvlakke tot die vorming van PTSV kan lei. Gemengde effek regressie-analise is gedoen om te bepaal of kortisol- en oksitosienkonsentrasies PTSVuitkomste voorspel. Resultate: PTSV simptome het oortyd aansienlik afgeneem, p = 0,000. Net so het waargenome stres, p = 0,0023, en kortisolkonsentrasies, p = 0,004, oortyd aansienlik afgeneem. Terwyl sosiale ondersteuning tellings, p = 0.5851, en oksitosien konsentrasies, p = 0.995, geen beduidende veranderinge gehad het nie. Daarbenewens kon kortisolkonsentrasies, p = 0,1660, en sosiale ondersteuning, p = 0,827, nie PTSV-uitkoms voorspel nie, maar oksitosienkonsentrasies, helling = 9,32, p = 0,002 en waargenome strestellings, helling = -5,654, p = 0,033, kan PTSV voorspel. Gevolgtrekking: Hierdie bevindings toon 'n verband tussen PTSV-simptoom erns en HPA-as wanaanpassing, via verhoogde oksitosienreaksies by slagoffers van verkragting. Ons kom tot die gevolgtrekking dat hierdie bevindings beduidende kliniese gevolge kan hê vir vroue wat aan verkragting onderwerp is. Veral die aanbied van wetenskaplike gebaseerde PTSV-intervensies aan slagoffers wat blootgestel word aan verkragting, kan belofte toon om simptome te verlig en HPA-asontvanklikheid vir stresverwante stimuli te "normaliseer".
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Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2023
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