Geological setting and a geometallurgical evaluation of the Namakwa Sands heavy minerals deposit, West Coast of South Africa

Date
2015-12
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Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University
Abstract
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The Namakwa Sands deposit, which is situated along the west coast of South Africa features world-class titanium and zircon resources with a challenging processing character. This study employs geometallurgical principles to define and quantify key mineralogical properties of the deposit that could affect throughput, recovery and quality. In addition to geotechnical investigations, a representative suite of ore and process samples were systematically studied with light microscopy, XRF, XRD, QEMSCAN, LA-ICP-MS and EMPA. The siliciclastic, arenaceous Namakwa Sands deposit developed during the Early Pliocene (~5 Ma ago) to the Late Pleistocene and the deposit stratigraphy assimilates well into the regional West Coast Group. The mineralisation is hosted by two adjacent ore bodies, which are strikingly different in various aspects. Graauwduinen West (GD West) consists of three strandline-dune couplets set in a transitional shallow marine-aeolian environment, whereas Graauwduinen East (GD East) comprises a dune deposit sans marine influence. Multiple, superimposed duricrust horizons effectively cemented the medium-grained ore bearing sands of both ore bodies. GD West is characterised by greater oversize (+1 mm fraction) and slimes (-45 μm fraction) percentages as well as poorer levels of mineral liberation and mineral surface exposure, unfavourable processing attributes that are all related to the duricrust. Mineralised trends are conspicuously distinct for the two ore bodies, i.e. southwest-northeast for GD West and southeast-northwest for GD East. The degree of mineralisation is significantly better for GD West than GD East, but heavy mineral assemblages from GD East are marked by higher proportions of the valuable minerals zircon, rutile, ilmenite and its alteration product leucoxene. Ilmenite (FeTiO₃) is the chief valuable mineral present and about 20% of the ilmenite population is affected by various stages of alteration. Optically, two coloured varieties of rutile (TiO₂), namely yellow and the more common red type are recognised. Their major element chemistry is similar, but red rutile contains greater levels of V and Cr, but lesser quantities of Fe and Nb than the yellow variety. About 72% of the zircon (ZrSiO₄) population are optically clear, and hosts lesser quantities of the penalty elements U, Th, REE and Fe than the coloured varieties. Statistical differences in the bulk geochemistry and mineralogy of the two ore bodies indicate contrasting sediment routing dynamics. Proximal source terranes utilising fluvial-marine courses supplied the required heavy minerals budget for GD West. By contrast, the source of GD East is considered to originate mainly via an interior, fluvial-aeolian corridor. Overall, however, quantitatively the medium to high-grade facies Namaqualand Metamorphic Province is considered the key contributor to the heavy mineral population of the Namakwa Sands deposit. The complexity of the ore characteristics observed, translates into a challenging and variable processing response. Only mineral grade, liberation, magnetic deportment, particle size and particle chemistry were established as meaningful mineral recovery drivers. The recovery of valuable minerals during primary concentration, which entails wet spiral separation, is mainly an inverse function of gangue grade. This study confirms that duricrust cementing agents are the key contributor to poor mineral liberation, which result in significant tailings losses during spiral separation. Variations in the magnetic susceptibility of the heavy mineral fraction, subtract significantly from mineral recoveries during wet magnetic secondary concentration. Particle chemistry becomes an important recovery driver during final mineral separation due to the sensitive trade-off between stringent product quality specifications and mineral recovery. Ilmenite recovery for instance is mainly controlled by the intricate deportment of SiO₂, a key product quality penalty that is intimately locked with the ilmenite host as surface coatings and silicate inclusions. Similarly, the deportment of the penalty elements Fe, Ti, U and Th, which reach high concentrations in coloured zircon varieties, are complex and present major constraints to the recovery of the current zircon population. The total recovery potential is better for zircon than for the titanium minerals, which is consistent with actual mineral recovery trends. Overall, the mineral liberation and the abundance of gangue minerals, particularly garnet and pyroxene, represent the most detrimental constraints to the recovery of the valuable mineral fraction. The mineral recovery potential is markedly different for the two ore bodies. GD East demonstrates a better mineral recovery potential compared to GD West. Particle chemistry and magnetic susceptibility are the key penalties that constrain ilmenite recovery for GD East ore, whereas zircon recovery is mostly impacted by particle chemistry. Mineral liberation, particle chemistry and gangue grades are the key penalties that limit mineral recovery for GD West ore. The gains in mineral resource intelligence materialised into a tangible improvement in mineral resource utilisation over the duration of the study. Enticing opportunities to further improve mineral resource utilisation revolves around creating a better fit between ore characteristics and related metallurgical behaviour, processing technology and market requirements.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Namakwa Sands afsetting wat aan die weskus van Suid-Afrika geleë is, beskik oor wêreldklas titaan- en sirkoon hulpbronne met 'n uitdagende verwerkingskarakter. Die huidige studie maak gebruik van geometallurgiese beginsels om die hoof mineralogiese eienskappe te bepaal en te kwantifiseer wat die deurset, herwinning en kwaliteit van die afsetting beinvloed. Tesame met geotegniese ondersoeke, is 'n verteenwoordigende suite van erts- en proses monsters stelselmatig met ligmikroskopie, XRF, XRD, QEMSCAN, LA-ICP-MS en EMPA bestudeer. Die silisiklasitiese, sanderige Namakwa Sands afsetting het vanaf die vroeë Plioseen (~ 5 Ma gelede) tot die Laat Pleistoseen ontwikkel en die afsettingstratigrafie pas goed in die plaaslike Weskus Groep. Die mineralisasie strek deur twee aangrensende ertsliggame, wat in baie aspekte oorwegend verskillend is. Graauwduinen Wes (GD-Wes) bestaan uit drie strandlyn- duin koeplette in 'n vlak mariene-eoliese omgewing, terwyl Graauwduinen Oos (GD-Oos) bestaan uit 'n duin afsetting sonder enige mariene invloed. Veelvuldige hardekors horisonne het die medium-korrelgrootte sand van beide ertsliggame effektiewelik gesementeer. GD-Wes word gekenmerk deur meer growwe materiaal (>1 mm fraksie) en slik (-45 μm fraksie), asook laer vlakke van mineraal vryheidstelling en mineraal oppervlakblootstelling, ongunstige verwerkingseienskappe wat almal verband hou met die hardekors. Mineralisasie tendense is opvallend verskillend vir die twee ertsliggame, so byvoorbeeld is dit suidwes-noordoos gerig vir GD-Wes en suidoos-noordwes gerig vir GD-Oos. Die graad van mineralisasie is aansienlik beter vir GD-Wes as GD-Oos, maar swaarmineraal samestellings van GD-Oos word gekenmerk deur hoër verhoudings van die waardevolle minerale sirkoon, rutiel, ilmeniet en sy veranderingsproduk leukokseen. Ilmeniet (FeTiO₃) is die hoof waardevolle mineraal en ongeveer 20% van die ilmeniet populasie word beïnvloed deur verskeie fases van verandering. Twee opties gekleurde rutiel (TiO₂) tipes naamlik geel en die meer algemene rooi tipe is geidentifiseer. Hul hoofelement chemie is soortgelyk, maar rooi rutiel bevat hoër vlakke van V en Cr, maar kleiner hoeveelhede Fe en Nb as die geel verskeidenheid. Omtrent 72% van die sirkoon (ZrSiO₄) populasie is opties kleurloos, wat minder U, Th, REE en Fe as die gekleurde tipes bevat. Statistiese verskille in die geochemie en mineralogie van die twee ertsliggame dui op uiteenlopende sediment koersbewegings. GD-Wes se swaarmineraal populasie is aangevoer deur fluviale-mariene weë vanaf proksimale bronne, terwyl bronmateriaal van GD-Oos hoofsaaklik afkomstig is via 'n binnelandse, fluviale-eoliese korridor. Kwantitatief word die medium- tot hoë-graad fasies Namakwaland Metamorfe Provinsie egter as die belangrikste bydraer tot die swaarmineraal populasie van die Namakwa Sands afsetting beskou. Die kompleksiteit van die ertskenmerke skep 'n uitdagende en veranderlike proseskarakter. Slegs mineraalgraad, mineraal vryheidstelling, magnetiese vatbaarheid, korrelgrootte en partikelchemie is bevestig as betekenisvolle mineraalherwinningsfaktore. Die herwinning van waardevolle minerale tydens primêre konsentrasie, wat hidrouliese spiraalskeiding behels, is hoofsaaklik 'n inverse funksie van gangsteengraad. Hierdie studie bevestig dat die hardekors sement die belangrikste bydraer tot swak mineraal vryheidstelling is, wat tot beduidende uitskotverliese tydens spiraalskeiding lei. Variasies in die magnetiese vatbaarheid van die swaarmineraalfraksie beinvloed mineraalherwinning in hidrouliese magnetiese sekondêre konsentrasie aansienlik. Partikelchemie is 'n belangrike herwinningsfaktor tydens die finale mineraalskeiding proses as gevolg van die sensitiewe balans wat tussen produkspesifikasies en mineraalherwinning heers. Die herwinning van ilmeniet byvoorbeeld word hoofsaaklik beheer deur die ingewikkelde verspreiding van SiO₂, 'n belangrike kwaliteitsmaatstaf wat intiem met die ilmeniet gasheer as 'n oppervlakslagie en silikaat insluitsels geklem is. Net so is die teenwoordigheid van die ongewenste elemente Fe, Ti, U en Th, wat hoë konsentrasies in gekleurde sirkoon tipes bereik, kompleks en stel tans groot beperkings op die herwinning van sirkoon. Die totale herwinningspotensiaal is beter vir sirkoon as vir die titaanminerale, wat ooreenstem met werklike waarneembare tendense. Die algehele mineraal vryheidstelling en die oorvloed van gangsteen minerale, veral granaat en pirokseen, verteenwoordig egter die grootste beperkinge op die herwinning van die waardevolle mineraalfraksie. Die mineraalherwinnings- potensiaal vir die twee ertsliggame is merkbaar verskillend. GD-Oos toon oor die algemeen 'n beter mineraalherwinningspotensiaal in vergelyking met GD-Wes. Partikelchemie en magnetiese vatbaarheid beheer grotendeels die herwinning van ilmeniet afkomstig van GD- Oos, terwyl sirkoonherwinning meestal deur partikelchemie beïnvloed word. Die herwinning van waardevolle minerale vanaf GD-Wes in teenstelling, word hoofsaaklik beperk deur mineraal vryheidstelling, partikelchemie en die gangsteengraad. Die toename in geometallurgiese kennis het 'n tasbare verbetering in die mineraal hulpbronbenutting oor die duur van die studie teweegebring. Belowende geleenthede om mineraal hulpbronbenutting verder te verbeter draai om die erts eienskappe en verwante metallurgiese gedrag, prosestegnologie en markbehoeftes te optimiseer.
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Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2015.
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