A Longitudinal Perspective on the Impact of Immune Status on the HIV-1 Latent Reservoir and Neurocognitive Outcomes in Virologically Suppressed Children

Date
2022-04
Journal Title
Journal ISSN
Volume Title
Publisher
Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University
Abstract
ENGLISH SUMMARY: Background: Children remain the most vulnerable population affected by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 (HIV-1) pandemic whose reliance on lifelong therapy is accompanied by several immune abnormalities. In the absence of an effective vaccine, there is currently a strong emphasis on HIV-1 “cure” and although cART leads to viral suppression the virus is still able to establish latent reservoirs within host cells and this is considered the major barrier to achieving cure. Immune factors are considered critically important for the establishment and maintenance of HIV-1 latent reservoirs, but these factors are not well characterised, particularly in children. Delineating and understanding the immunological mechanisms that drive HIV-1 persistence and other chronic diseases such as metabolic, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases is important in children approaching adolescence. Longitudinal studies evaluating the relationship between immune status, the HIV-1 latent reservoir and neurocognitive outcomes are limited, and inadequately studied, specifically within the South African subtype C context. The aim of this study was to longitudinally investigate and characterise host immune status before and after early initiated, delayed and interrupted cART in relation to HIV-1 latent reservoir size and neurocognitive outcomes in perinatally HIV-1 infected children. Methods: Study participants originated from the well-characterised Children with HIV Early AntiRetroviral Therapy (CHER) randomised controlled trial. This was a descriptive study that employed both a longitudinal (birth to 8 years of age) and cross-sectional study design and analysed samples collected retrospectively and prospectively. For the extensive longitudinal evaluation of immunological biomarker (cytokine, chemokine and receptor antagonist) profiling, we utilised Luminex® Multiplex Assays as well as Enzyme Linked ImmunoSorbent Assays (ELISAs). Multiparameter flow cytometry was utilised for the analysis of monocyte subset distribution. The quantitative viral outgrowth assay (QVOA) was implemented on a subset of participants for measuring of the HIV-1 replication-competent viral reservoir in conjunction with a novel highly sensitive RT-qPCR single copy assay targeted at HIV-1 integrase (iSCA). In addition, HIV-1 cell-associated DNA, specific for integrase (iCAD), were measured longitudinally as a molecular biomarker of HIV-1 persistence and correlated to immune and neurocognitive parameters. Longitudinal neurocognitive assessments were completed independently and correlated to immune, virological and clinical parameters. Age and demographically matched HIV exposed uninfected (HEU) and HIV unexposed uninfected (HUU) were included at the last time point (8 years of age). Key Findings: HIV-1 infected (HIV+) children showed significantly higher levels of biomarkers associated with generalised chronic inflammation, particularly those associated with myeloid cell activation compared to HEU and HUU controls at 8 years of age. These included hsCRP (p=0.01), MIP-1β (p=0.03), IL-1α (p<0.001), INF-α (p<0.001), CD40L (p<0.001), sCD14, sCD163, IL-18, IL-17F (p<0.001) and PDGF-BB (p<0.00001). We also observed a significant elevation of soluble calcium binding alarmin protein involved in the regulation of the inflammatory process and immune response, s100A8/A9, in the HIV+ group compared to the two study control groups (p<0.001). Within the HIV+ group, significant elevation of biomarkers associated with gut epithelial damage was observed at 8 years of age. IL-18 was the only immune biomarker that significantly correlated with HIV-1 CAD at baseline (r = +0.35; p=0.04) and at the 8-year follow-up (r = +0.38; p=0.02) and associated to the innate IL-1 family of immune biomarkers including IL-1RA (r = +0.33; p<0.01), IL-1α (r = +0.22; p<0.01), IL-1β (r = +0.26; p<0.01), and IL-1RA (r = +0.32; p<0.01). IL-18 also significantly correlated with biomarkers of monocyte/macrophage activation and gut damage, including: sCD14 (r = +0.50; p<0.01), sCD163 (r = +0.40; p<0.01), LBP (r = +0.26; p<0.01) and MIP-1β (r = +0.19; p=0.02). IL-18 showed significant negative associations (p<0.01) with CD4 % at baseline, longitudinal CD4 count and CD4:CD8 ratio at 8 years (r = +0.35; p=0.04). For longitudinal cytokine analysis, principal component analysis indicated that about 36% of the soluble biomarkers measured including: IL-15, TNFβ, GCSF, IL-1RA, IL-5, IL-4, IL-8, IL-10 and RANTES contributed to the largest parameter change over time across all treatment groups. The key early clinical predictors of plasma biomarker expression over time include time to therapy initiation, time to viral suppression, longitudinal CD4% and absolute count and CD4 and CD8% and absolute counts at birth. Neurocognitive outcomes can be predicted by early immunological, virological and clinical parameters. Conclusion: By investigating and profiling participants from the CHER randomised control trial cohort, we were able to provide important insights into immunological mechanisms that contribute to driving HIV-1 persistence during long-term suppressive therapy. The findings reported in this thesis have highlighted some key features of immune abnormalities that persists after early initiated long-term ART in paediatric populations. The evaluation of the persistence of any of the key associations through and beyond adolescence will aid in building a lifelong profile of immune changes in the MTCT-infected children. This research also provides important knowledge to further exploring PHIV children as potential “cure” and remission candidates.
AFRIKAANS OPSOMMING: Agtergrond: Kinders bly die mees kwesbare groep wat deur die Menslike Immuniteitsgebrekvirus-1 (MIV-1) pandemie geraak word en wie se afhanklikheid van lewenslange behandeling met verskeie immuunafwykings gepaard gaan. In die afwesigheid van 'n doeltreffende entstof, is daar tans 'n sterk klem op MIV-1 "genesing" en alhoewel kombinasie antiretrovirale behandeling (cART) tot virale onderdrukking lei, is die virus steeds in staat om latente reservoirs binne gasheerselle te vestig en dit word beskou as die grootste struikelblok vir die bereiking van genesing. Immuunfaktore word as krities belangrik geag vir die vestiging en instandhouding van MIV-1 latente reservoirs en om te bepaal of 'n reservoir gevestig en in stand gehou word, maar hierdie faktore is nie goed gekarakteriseer nie, veral nie by kinders nie. Die afbakening en begrip van die immunologiese meganismes wat MIV-1-volharding en ander chroniese siektes dryf, is belangrik by kinders wat adolessensie nader. Longitudinale studies wat die verband tussen immuunstatus, die MIV-1 latente reservoir en neurokognitiewe uitkomste evalueer is beperk en onvoldoende bestudeer, spesifiek binne die Suid-Afrikaanse subtipe C konteks. Metodes: Studiedeelnemers is uit die goedgekarakteriseerde Kinders met Vroeë AntiRetrovirale (CHER) gerandomiseerde kontroleproef geneem in ingesluit. Dit was 'n beskrywende studie wat beide 'n longitudinale (geboorte tot 8 jaar oud) en deursnee studie-ontwerp gebruik het en monsters wat retrospektief en prospektief versamel is, ontleed het. Vir die uitgebreide longitudinale evaluering van immunologiese biomerker (sitokien-, chemokien- en reseptorantagonis) profiele, het ons Luminex® multipleks en ensiem-gekoppelde immuunsorbent toetse (ELISAs) gebruik. Multiparameter vloeisitometrie is gebruik vir die ontleding van monosiet subset verspreiding. Die kwantitatiewe virale uitgroei-toets (QVOA) is op 'n subgroep deelnemers geïmplementeer vir die meting van die MIV-1-replikasie-kompetente virale reservoir in samewerking met 'n nuwe hoogs sensitiewe RT-qPKR enkelkopie-toets wat op MIV-1-integrase (iSCA) gerig is. Daarbenewens is MIV-1 sel-geassosieerde DNS, spesifiek vir integrase (iCAD), longitudinaal gemeet as 'n molekulêre biomerker van MIV-1 volharding en gekorreleer met immuun en neurokognitiewe parameters. Longitudinale neurokognitiewe assesserings is onafhanklik voltooi en gekorreleer met immuun-, virologiese en kliniese parameters. Ouderdom en demografies ooreenstemmende MIV-blootgestelde ongeïnfekteerde (HEU) en MIV-onblootgestelde ongeïnfekteerde (HUU) is op die laaste tydstip (8 jaar oud) ingesluit. Sleutelbevindinge: MIV-1-geïnfekteerde (MIV+) kinders het aansienlik hoër vlakke van biomerkers getoon wat met algemene chroniese inflammasie geassosieer word, veral dié wat met myeloïedselaktivering geassosieer word in vergelyking met HEU- en HUU-kontroles op 8-jarige ouderdom. Dit het hsCRP (p=0.01), MIP-1β (p=0.03), IL-1α (p<0.001), INF-α (p<0.001), CD40L (p<0.001), sCD14, sCD163, IL-18 ingesluit, IL-17F (p<0,001) en PDGF-BB (p<0,00001). Ons het ook 'n beduidende toename van oplosbare kalsiumbindende alarmienproteïen waargeneem wat betrokke is by die regulering van die inflammatoriese proses en immuunrespons, s100A8/A9, in die MIV+-groep in vergelyking met die twee kontrolegroepe (p<0.001). Binne die MIV+-groep is beduidende verhoging van biomerkers geassosieer met derm-epiteelskade op 8-jarige ouderdom waargeneem. IL-18 was die enigste immuun biomerker wat beduidend gekorreleer het met MIV-1 CAD by basislyn (r = +0.35; p=0.04) en by die 8-jaar opvolg (r = +0.38; p=0.02) en geassosieer met die aangebore IL-1 familie van immuun biomerkers insluitend IL-1RA (r = +0.33; p<0.01), IL-1α (r = +0.22; p<0.01), IL-1β (r = +0.26; p<0.01), en IL-1RA (r = +0.32; p<0.01). IL-18 het ook beduidend gekorreleer met biomerkers van monosiet/makrofageaktivering en dermskade, insluitend: sCD14 (r = +0.50; p<0.01), sCD163 (r = +0.40; p<0.01), LBP (r = +0.26; p<0.01) en MIP-1β (r = +0.19; p=0.02). IL-18 het betekenisvolle negatiewe assosiasies (p<0.01) getoon met CD4 % by basislyn, longitudinale CD4 telling en CD4:CD8 verhouding op 8 jaar (r = +0.35; p=0.04). Vir longitudinale sitokien-analise het hoofkomponent-analise aangedui dat ongeveer 36% van die oplosbare biomerkers gemeet insluitend: IL-15, TNFβ, GCSF, IL-1RA, IL-5, IL-4, IL-8, IL-10 en RANTES bygedra het tot die grootste parameterverandering oor tyd oor alle behandelingsgroepe. Die sleutel vroeë kliniese voorspellers van plasma-biomerkeruitdrukking oor tyd sluit in tyd tot terapie-inisiasie, tyd tot virale onderdrukking, longitudinale CD4% en absolute telling en CD4 en CD8% en absolute tellings by geboorte. Neurokognitiewe uitkomste kan deur vroeë immunologiese, virologiese en kliniese parameters voorspel word. Gevolgtrekking: Deur deelnemers van die CHER-gerandomiseerde kontroleproefkohort te ondersoek en te profileer, kon ons belangrike insigte verskaf oor immunologiese meganismes wat bydra tot die aandryf van MIV-1-volharding tydens langtermyn-onderdrukkende terapie. Die bevindinge wat in hierdie tesis gerapporteer word, het 'n paar sleutelkenmerke van immuunafwykings uitgelig wat voortduur.
Description
Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2022.
Keywords
HIV-1 immunology, HIV-positive children, Immunology, HIV infections -- Prevention, UCTD
Citation