DIDACTICAL PERSPECTIVES OF AURAL TRAINING by Anna Catharina Herbst (nee Naude) Dissertation presented for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN MUSIC Faculty of Arts University of Stellenbosch Promoters: Dr P.E.O.F Loeb van Zuilenburg Prof. R. Ottermann Mr J. Blanckenberg December 1993 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za DECLARATION I the undersigned hereby declare that the work contained in this dissertation is my own original work and has not previously in its entirety or in part been submitted at any university for a degree . Signature Date: Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za ABSTRACT The purpose of this research endeavour is to develop an understanding of the general state of Aural Training as presented in Aural Training literature and at a tertiary level. Based on this understanding, recommendations for a theory towards Aural Training are furthermore made. The investigation consists of three main parts. In the first two parts, an in-depth theoretical study, exploring aspects ~ch as the rationale behind Aural Training, teaching ideologies, contents and target group and methodological approaches found in published an unpublished sources, as well as a practical questionnaire-based survey, investigating selected Aural Training aspects as presented on a tertiary level iIi the Republic of South Africa (RSA), the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), and the United States of America (USA) are presented. A model of an integrated Aural Training approach for children is proposed in the third part. Results from both the theoretical and practical surveys indicate that: (a) the rationale behind Aural Training has not been thoroughly thought through; (b) Aural Training lecturers with sound pedagogical credentials are needed; (c) prospective stUdents are not prepared for their tertiary Aural Training courses; (d) the Aural Training curricula at most tertiary music institutions do not meet lecturers' expectations; (e) more instruction time is needed for classes scheduled in both individual and group tuition; (t) Aural Training literature and teaching methods are still influenced by the Behaviouristic school of psychological thinking, with its emphasis on drill and practice; (g) methods such as Sight Singing and Dictation are more frequently applied than others, possibly because they are readily quantifiable; (h) most emphasis is placed on tonal music; (i) research results in which holistic approaches to Aural Training have been recommended since the early 1980s are not reflected in the majority of Aural Training work-/textbooks and teaching methods; (j) commercially available software is often chosen because of its availability and not because of being based on sound pedagogical principles; (k) there is a growing interest amongst lecturers to re-examine the goals of Aural Training and to apply music psychological principles. Because of the already mentioned problem of improperly prepared prospective music students" and the scarcity of Aural Training approaches to develop children's musical consciousnesses, a model for integrating' Aural Training into the instrumental/vocal music lesson through composition is proposed. This model is based entirely on (a) the conviction that most effective learning takes place through active involvement and creation, and (b) music psychological principles such as Gestalt perception, the developmental theories of Piaget, Gardner and Swanwick-Tillman, and the musical thinking process theories of Prince and Webster. Through the application of this model, Aural Training can be approached by dealing with wholes within a musical context. Structural and perceptual thinking, as well as the mental principles of exploring, applying, problem-solving and critical reasoning can also be developed. It offers a comprehensive approach to learning written theory skills, and the opportunity to apply all other Aural Training methods. Examples of children's compositions are presented to support this model. It is finally recommended that: (a) Aural Training lecturers should constantly re-examine their objectives, contents, teaching philosophies and methods applied; (b) advanced courses in Aural Training should be offered at all tertiary music institutions in order to meet the need for adequately trained lecturers; (c) a compulsory course on the didactics ii Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za of Aural Training should be offered for all music students; (d) more instruction time should be made available for Aural Training; (e) Aural Training should be treated in its own right in grading policies; (f) holistic approaches to both classroom-based and programmed Aural Training should replace drill and practice; (g) music from all style periods should be included; (h) a wide spectrum of Aural Training methods should be incorporated and not mainly Sight Singing and Dictation; (i) lecturers should inform themselves about recent research results and try to incorporate these into their Aural Training curricula and syllabi; G) Work-/textbooks and computer software based on holistic and comprehensive approaches to Aural Training should be released; (k) Aural Training should be incorporated from the very first instrumental/vocal lesson by applying an integrated, holistic approach through composition. iii Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za SAMEVATTING Die doel van hierdie navorsing is om 'n ondersoek te loods' na die algemene stand van gehooropleiding soos daargestel in musiekliteratuur, en soos aangebied aan tersiere musiekinstansies: 'n Model vir gelntegreerde gehooropleiding word ten slotte voorgestel aan hand van hierdie inligting. Die inhoud van die ondersoek is in drie hoofdele georganiseer. In die eerste deel word In teoretiese ondersoek geloods na die redes vir, en doelstellings van gehooropleiding, onderrigfilosojiee, inhoud en teikengroep, en metodiese benaderingswyses. Die mate waarin hierdie aspekte, soos gevind in gepubliseerde en ongepubliseerde bronne, neerslag gevind het in tersiere gehooropleidingsprogramme in die Republiek van Suid-Afrika, die Federale Republiek van Duitsland en die Verenigde State van Amerika, vorm die kern van die vraelys-gebaseerde tweede deel. 'n Model vir gelntegreerde gehooropleiding met kinders word in die derde deel voorgestel. Resultate van beide die teoretiese en praktiese ondersoeke toon dat: (a) die redes vir, en doelstellings van gehooropleiding nog nie goed deurdink is nie; (b) spesiaal geskoolde gehooropleidingsdosente benodig word; (c) voornemende musiekstudente gehooropleidingskurrikula nie nie aandie voorbereid vir tersiere gehooropleidingskursusse is nie; (d) die vereistes van die meeste gehooropleidingsdosente voldoen nie; (e) meer onderrigtyd benodig word vir gehooropleiding, wat in beide individuele en groepsonderrig plaas behoort te vind; (1) gehooropleidingsmetodes steeds sterk belnvloed word deur die Behavioristiese skool van musiekpsigologiese denke waarin dril en herhaling beklemtoon word; (g) bladsang en diktee voorkeur geniet bo ander metodes, waarskynlik as gevolg van die feit dat studente se antwoorde makliker gekwantifiseer kan word as in ander metodes; (h) tonale musiek meestal beklemtoon word; (i) navorsingresultate waarin holistiese benaderingswyses tot gehooropleiding sedert die begin van die 1980's aanbeveel word, min tot geen invloed op die meerderheid gehooropleidingsteksboeke en -metodes gehad het; G) kommersieel beskikbare rekenaarprogramme dikwels gekies word op grond van beskikbaarheid en nie op grond van pedagogiese doelstellings nie; (k) daar 'n toenemende gelnteresseerdheid onder dosente is om die doelstelling van gehooropleiding te re-evaIueer, en om musiekpsigologiese beginsels in gehooropleiding te inkorporeer. Vanwee die reeds genoemde probleemvan onvoorbereide voornemende musiekstudente wat gehooropleiding betref en die skaarsheid aan gehooropleidingsprogramme vir kinders, is 'n model vir die integrering van gehooropleiding deur middel van komposisie in die instrumentale en/of sangles voorgestel. Hierdie model is gebaseer op (a) die oortuiging dat die mees effektiewe vorm van leer plaasvind d.m. v. aktiewe betrokkenheid en skepping; en (b) die musiekpsigologiese beginsels van Gestalt-waameming, die ontwikkelingsteoriee van Piaget, Gardner en SwanwickTillman, en musikale denkprosesteoriee van Prince en Webster. Deur middel van hierdie model kan gehooropleiding benader word vanuit 'n holistiese oogpunt deurdat gehele binne 'n musikale konteks behandel word. Daardeur word nie net strukturele en persepsuele denke ontwikkel nie, maar ook verstandelike denkprosesse soos ontdekking, aanwending, probleemoplossing en kritiese denke. Dit bied ook die geleentheid vir 'n geheelbenadering tot die aanleer van musiekteoretiese kennis en skryfvaardighede, en die inkorporering van aIle ander gehooropleidingsmetodes. Voorbeelde van kinders se komposisies is ingesluit as bewys daarvoor dat dit weI in die praktyk toepasbaar is. iv Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Ten slotte word aanbeveel dat: (a) gehooropleidingsdosente hulle doelstellings, onderrigfilosofiee en -metodes voortdurend krities moet betrag en ondersoek; (b) gevorderde kursusse in gehooropleiding aan alle tersiere musiekinstansies aangebied behoort te word om sodoende te voorsien in die nood van onvoldoende geskoolde,dosente; (c) alle studente verplig moet word om 'n kursus in gehooropleidingsdidaktiek te volg; (d) meer onderrrigtyd ingeruim behoort te word vir gehooropleiding; (e) gehooropleiding as 'n vak in eie reg behandel moet word by puntetoekennings; (t) metodes van 001 en herhaling met holistiese benaderingswyses tot gehooropleiding in beide klaskamergebaseerde en geprogrammeerde onderrig vervang moet word; (g) musiek van alle stylperiodes ingesluit behoort te word; (h) 'n wye spektrum van gehooropleidingsmetodes aangewend moet word en me slegs bladsang en diktee me; (i) gehooropleidingsdosente hulself voortdurend op hoogte van die nuutste navorsingsresul-tate behoort'te hou en moet poog om hierdie resultate in hulle gehooropleidingsprogramme te integreer; G) gehooropleidingsboeke en rekenaarpro- gramme wat op holistiese en kontekstuele benaderings tot gehooropleiding gebaseer is, gepubliseer moet word; (k) gehooropleiding vanaf die eerste instrumentale en/of sangles gei'ntegreer behoort te word deurdat die voorgestelde model van 'n holistiese benaderingswyse d.m. v. komposisie aangewend word. v Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My interest in music and its aural qualities began as a five-year-old child playing melodies 'by ear' on the piano. Through the years many teachers and friends were responsible for the fostering of this lively interest which finally lead to the completion of this investigation into Aural Training. As no research can be cQUlpletedwithout the help of other people and institutions, I would like to make use of this opportunity to thank everybody who at one stage or another formed part of the creation process. Dr Paul Loeb van Zuilenburg guided this endeavour in his kind, fatherly and professional way, not an easy task as we were literally continents apart from each other. I am also very thankful for the help offered and recommendations made by Prof. Reino Ottermann, Dr Nicol Viljoen and Mr loban Blankenberg, who all formed part of the committee of examiners. Since the largest part of my research was completed in the Federal Republic .of Germany, I am also indebted to Prof. Hubert Haas, Prof. Rainer Wehinger and Prof. Irene Matz from the ~taatliehe Hoehsehule jUr Musik und Darstellende Kuns! in Stuttgart who acted as my supervisors in Germany. I wish to express my deepest thanks to all 14 lectures of the department of Aural Training at this Musikhoehsehule for allowing me to observe their Aural Training approaches and methods, and for not getting tired of answering a constant stream of questions. I would also like to thank the following persons and institutions which hosted me on a study tour: Prof. Markus Ulbrich at the Staatliehe Hoehsehule jUr Musik Freiburg im Breisgau, Prof. Christoph Hohlfeld and the Aural Training departments of the Hoehsehule jUr Musik und Darstellende Kunst Hamburg, .Hoehsehule jUr Musik K6ln and Hoehsehule der Killlste Berlin. A questionnaire formed part of this survey and was sent to Aural Training lecturers at tertiary institutions in the Republic of South Africa, the Federal Republic of Germany and the United States of America. I would like to thank the 134 lecturers in these countries who diligently took part in the research project. Mr. Christoph Matz was responsible for the illustrations in the questionnaire. Regarding the supply of study material, I am greatful to the editors of the Journal of Musie Theory Pedagogy who donated all the back issues of this journal, and Prof. Fred Hofstetter and Prof. Gary Wittlich who provided me with free copies of their Aural Training software. I was also assisted in statistical issues by Dr Marianne HaBler and Mr. Karl Kirschmann, and in language issues by Dr Edwin Hees who did a very thorough job in proofreading and editing the final copy. No research can be done without financial support and I am very greatful for the financial help of the Harry Croxley Trust, a Stellenbosch 2000 scholarship, the German government in the form of a DAAD scholarship, and the Staatliehe HoehsehulejUr Musik und Darstellende Kunst Stuttgart. Last but not least I must mention the moral support of dear friends and close family members. The moral support and indispensable help of my husband Theo cannot be expressed in words. All I can say is, thank you ... Soli Deo Gloria! vi Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za TABLE OF CONTENTS Page List of Figures List of Tables List of Appendices ix x .x CHAPTER ONE: Purpose, methodology and literature review Introduction 1. Necessity for the research; its thesis and purpose 2. Methodology 3. Limitations 4. Review of related research and literature 4.1 4.2 4.3 Research on aural curriculum planning Articles, books and congress reports on curriculum designs at selected tertiary institutions Overview of research in the field of Aural Training 1 3 4 4 5 6 10 18 CHAPTER TWO: Theo~etical overview of the didactics of Aural Training Introduction 1. The rationale behind the teaching of Aural Training 2-3 25 The significance of Aural Training The objectives of Aural Training 27 29 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.2.4 1.1 1.2 31 31 33 41 The The The The pre-eminent rudimentary goal primary long-term goal secondary long-term goals hierarchy of long-term goals Teaching ideologies 43 2.1 2.2 2. 43 48 Isolation vs integration and comprehension Fragmentation vs Holism 3. The contents and target group of Aural Training 52 4. Methodological 60 4.1 Classroom-based 4.1.1 4.1.2 4.1.3 4.1.4 4.1.5 4.1.6 4.1.7 4.1.8 4.1.9 4.1.10 4.1.11 4.1.12 4.1.13 4.2 approaches 63 Gestural tasks Reproduction tasks Recognition tasks Imagination tasks Reading tasks Transcription tasks Transposition tasks Completion tasks Discrepancy tasks Description tasks Aural analysis tasks Creative tasks Evaluation tasks Programmed 4.2.1 4.2.2 instruction 63 70 72 79 81 93 101 101 102 103 104 107 108 instruction 109 Non-computer-assisted programmed Aural Training (NCAT) Computer-assisted Aural Training (CAT) vii 119 123 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za CHAPTER THREE: A questionnaire-based 1. 2. survey 135 2.1 2.2 3. Objectives of the research project 1991 Design 136 136 Measuring instrument and target group Sampling procedures 137 139 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 4. Results, discussions and conclusions 140 The objectives of Aural Training Organisational aspects Methodological aspects Teaching materials and attitudes towards research Non-computer-assisted Aural Training (NCAT) Computer-assisted Aural Training (CAT) Other aspects of Aural Training 146 153 163 166 167 172 173 Summary and recommendations CHAPTER FOUR: A model for aural instruction Music psychological research 178 1.1 1.2 1.3 1. 180 184 Gestalt perception Developmental psychology Musical thinking processes 191 An integrated Aural Training approach for young instrumentalists/vocalists 193 2.1 2.2 2. 194 199 A model for an integrated approach Examples from teaching practice CHAPTER FIVE: Summary 1. 2. 3. 209 Summary Conclusions Recommendations 216 217 BffiLIOGRAPHY 221 APPENDICES 239 viii Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za . LIST OF FIGURES Page Figure 1.1 OveIView of investigations into Aural Training and related research Figure 2.1 Prince: Paradigm for research on music listening 35 Figure 2.2 Hierarchy of long-term goals 42 Figure 2.3 Heyde: Perfect pitch - requirements Figure 2.4 Graybill: Example of how contour fails to reinforce the fourth beat 67 Figure 2.5 Graybill: Example of gestural hierarchy Figure 2.6 Graybill: Example of non-grouping and grouping gestures 67 69 Figure 2.7 Alldahl: Example of a reproduction task 71 Figure 2.8 KUhn: Example of the principle of chaining chords Figure 2.9 KUhn: Example of preparatory modulation Figure 2.10 Trubitt and Hines: Example of a "fusing" exercise Figure 2.11 Pratt et al.: Example of pitch imagination tasks Figure 2.12 Kral and Zopf: Example of a score reading exercise Figure 2.13 Ut queant !axis melody Figure 2.14 Benward: Example of step progression Figure 2.15 Hohlfeld: Example of the notation system to portray autonomous tones and affinity fields 19 58 and factors of influence 76 76 80 80 82 86 96 exercises dictation 98 Figure 2.16 Giildenstein: Example of graphical dictation Figure 2.17 Grabner: Example of rhythmic improvisation on a given melodic model Figure 2.18 Trubitt and Hines: Example of improvisation contour lines and exact rhythms based on given Figure 2.19 Examples of linear and branching structures in programmed Figure 2.20 Carlsen: Example of error detection 119 Figure 2.21 Breuer: Lessons one and twelve 120 Figure 2.22 Sherman and Morris: Example of inteIVal identification Figure 2.23 A typical MIDI configuration 126 Figure 2.24 Hofstetter: 127 Figure 2.25 Practice Unit 15 (Intervals lessons) and Unit 1 (Rhythmic melodies lesson) from the GUIDO computer program 100 107 108 instruction 110 within a musical context Block diagram of a fully configured computer music system + G configuration 122 129 Figure 2.26 A typical CD Figure 3.1 Summary of sample design 138 Figure 3.2 Aural Training methods used in all three countries (ALL) 157 Figure 3.3 Style periods included in Aural Analysis: All three -countries taken as a whole 159 Figure 3.4 Efficiency of CAT in all three countries: Improved skills 171 Figure 4.1 Upitis: Graphic and numeric descriptions 133 of the.triple non-symmetrical rhythm 183 Figure 4.2 Webster: Conceptual model of creative musical thinking 192 Figure 4.3 Translation 200 Figure 4.4 Chinesenmiidchen Figure 4.5 Chao Chai by Elisabeth 202 Figure 4.6 Der Elejantenmarsch 204 and encoding of Rebekka's by Rebekka 201 by Elisabeth Figure 4.7 205 207 Geisterstun.de by Melanie Figure 4.8 The Chinese Girl March by Christopher ix Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za LIST OF TABLES Page Heyde: Classification models of perfect pitch appearances Revesz, Wellek and Bachem 57 Table 2.2 The twelve trichords 78 Table 3.1 Response frequencies of indicated Aural Training methods 154 Table 3.2 Ranking of the results of Question Eleven 156 Table 4.1 Synopsis of general trends in the (musical) development of children aged 0-15 190 Table 2.1 LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A Investigations Appendix B 240 into Aural Training and related research Target melody and component skills suggested by the pedagogical framework of Scnpp and Davidson Sight singing level one (early first semester) at the New England Conservatory of Music 256 Appendix C Two examples of completion tasks as presented by Irene Matz (Luciano Beno: Duetti per due violini, Vol. 1 Bela) (Bela Bart6k: Melody in the Mist from Mikrokosmos IV, Nr. 107) 260 Appendix D Aural analysis class by Hubert Haas (I.S. Bach: Sonata Nr. 2 in A major for violin and harpsichord Student's aural analysis seminar: Second Viennese school (Anton Webem: Funf Lieder Op. 3, 1) 266 BWV 1015) Appendix E List of Aural Training Software 272 Appendix F Maps of the three countries and name lists of responding U niversities/ Musikhochschulen 296 Appendix G Questionnaire: 302 Appendix H The Afrikaans translation of the questionnaire Appendix I The German translation of the questionnaire Appendix J Examples of entrance requirements for Aural Training and final examinations in Aural Training in the RSA, FRG and USA 376 Appendix K Aural Training "trial lesson" presented at the Hochschule der Kunste Berlin 408 Results and respondents' x comments and accompanying and accompanying letter letter 348 362 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za CHAPTER ONE Purpose, methodology and literature review "DaB 'Horen' ein ganz zentraler Bereich des Musikunterrichts ist, wem miiBte man das sagen! Horen als Verhaltensweise, Horen als Lembereich, Horen als 'ear training', Horen als auditiver Eingangskanal, Horen als physiologischer, medizinischer, psychologischer, padagogischer Forschungsgegenstand - und einfach Horen als alltagliche Wahmehmungsform ... "1 INTRODUCTION Aural Training is starting to outgrow its childhood state where it was looked upon by the majority of students, music teachers and lecturers as an unimportant, time-consuming subject. It is conspicuous that whole issues of the Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy (Spring 1988) and Musik und Unterricht (March 1991) were devoted to hearing and Aural Training. The D-A-CH conference, "Musikalische Grundausbildung an Ausbildungsstatten fiir Musikberufe" (Regensburg, Germany, 1976), was the first conference that could be traced to have Aural Training and the role of listening in other music disciplines as central themes.2 RAMP: Musical Awareness: A Conference on Aural Training (Huddersfield United Kingdom, 1987) and another D-A-CH conference (Regensburg 1987) addressed the same topics.3 Both the Second Institute for Music Theory Pedagogy Studies (Boulder, Colorado 1989) and the Third Institute for Music Theory Pedagogy Studies (Missoula, Montana 1992) conferences concentrated on didactical aspects of Aural Training. 4 Aspects of Aural Training were also discussed along with other topics at, for example, the Fourth Canadian Symposium on Instructional Technology: Computer Technologies for Productive Learning (Winnipeg 1983) where Blais and 1 Wilfried Gruhn, "Editorial" in Musik und Unterricht, 2/7 (March 1991) p. 3. "No one needs to be told that 'hearing' forms an important central area of Music Education! 'Hearing' as a way of behaviour, 'hearing' as learning domain, 'hearing' as 'ear training', 'hearing' as an auditory access channel, 'hearing' as the subject of physiological, medical, psychological and pedagogical research - and simply 'hearing' as a part of everyday life... " (Researcher's translation). 2 Josef Mayr-Kem (Ed.), Materialien und Dokumente aus der Musikpadagogik, Band 6: Musikalische Grundschulung an Ausbildungsstatten fUr Musikberufe - Dokumentation fiber die D-A-CH-Tagung 1976. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1978. 3 Michael Henson, "A Conference on Aural Training" in British .Journal of Music Education, 4/3 (November 1987) pp. 301-302. Janet Ritterman, "Review of RAMP: Musical Awareness: A Conference on Aural Training [Michael Henson, (Ed.) Huddersfield Polytechnic 1987]" in British Journal of Music Education, 5/2 (1988) pp. 195-197. Wolf Peschl, "D-A-CH-Tagung 1987 in Regensburg" in Musikerziehung, 41 (October 1987/88) pp. 12-30. 4 Roger E. Foltz and Alice M. Lanning, "Report on the Institute for Music Theory Pedagogy Studies II" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 3/2 (Fall 1989) pp. 243-253. Michael R. Rogers, "A Report on the 1992 CMS Theory Pedagogy Institute" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 6/2 (1992) pp. 35-41. 1 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Prevel introduced "The Melocapteur: A Pitch Extractor Peripheral Design for Ear Training"5. At the 6. Stuttganer Sommerkurse 1990, seminars such as "Horen neuer Musik" and "Jazz-Ear-Training" were offered.6 Workshops on various German Aural Training computer programs, as well as a research report on the influence of computer-assisted instruction on aural achievement, formed part of the KlangAn KonGress 1991 (Osnabrock, Germany).7 The Festival des Harens (Erlangen, Germany, 1990) concentrated on physiological, acoustical and music philosophical aspects of hearing, but Aural Training as such was not addressed.S Along with the abovementioned periodicals and conferences, the increasing inquisitiveness into Aural Training is also reflected in the number of lectures presented at some Musikhochschulen, such as the Stuttgart Musikhochschule, as observed over a period of five years. Apart from individual and group Aural Training, extra non-mandatory lectures on aural analysis, techniques of hearing counterpoint, etc. were included in the curriculum. The number of these extra lectures increased from three in the 1988 syllabus to ten in the 1992 syllabus.9 A growing interest in auditive awareness was also visible in the developments in the undergraduate curriculum at Indiana University between 1950 and 1989.10 In South African tertiary music, Aural Training has gained status as a subject in its own right at most universities since the 1970s.11 This concern with Aural Training was preceded by an awakening of interest in Aural Education ("Horerziehung")12 in German public schools in the late 1960s and early 1970s.13 With the application of terms like Auditive Perception Education ("auditive Wahrnehmungserziehung"), a further distinction was made between simply hearing music and reacting to music by means of improvisation, sound experiments, composition and other realizations of what was 5 F. Blais and M. Prevel, "The Melocapteur: A Pitch Extractor Peripheral Design for Ear Training in Music", lecture read at the Fourth Canadian Symposium on Instructional Technology: Computer Technologies for Productive Learning. Winnipeg, Manhattan: National Research Council of Canada, 1983, pp. 515-518. 6 Conference attended by the researcher. No official report available. 7 University of Osnabrock, KlangArt KonGress. Congress prospectus, 1991, pp. 93 and 99. S City of Erlangen, Siemens, Bavarian Broadcast Company and the Friedrich-Alexander-University ErlangenNiirnberg, Festival des Horens: Programmiibersicht 20-30.9.1990. Erlangen: Palais Sutterheim, Marktplatz I, 1990. 9 Staatliche Hochschule fUr Musik und Darstellende Kunst Stuttgan, Vorlesungsverzeichnis Wintersemester 1988/89, p. 12, and Vorlesungsverzeichnis Sommersemester 1992, pp. 18-19. , 10 11 Mary H. Wennerstrom, "The Undergraduate Core Music Curriculum at Indiana University" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 3/2 (Fall 1989) pp. 153-176. Anna C. Naude, 'n Ondersoek na die geskiktheid van sillabi vir gehoortoetse in gegradeerde musiekeksamens. Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Stellenbosch 1987, pp. 240-257. 12 Aural education refers to broad school music education based on an auditive approach, with listening as the central point of focus. The main difference between Aural Training and Aural Education lies in the broader anthropological approach of the latter vs the more detailed approach of musical elements in the former. 13 Bernhard Dopheide (Ed.), Horerziehung. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1977. Manfred Teiner, "Das Ohr hat ganz erstaunliche Reserven - Osterreich: Diskussion urn Horerziehung als gleichberechtigten Teil der Padagogik" in Neue Musikzeitung, 31/3 (June/July 1982) p. 21. Dankmar Venus, Unterweisung im Musikhoren. Wuppertal: A. Hein, 1969. 2 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za heard.14 In the Comprehensive Musicianship approach in the United States of America, it was demanded that performance should form the core of analytical, evaluative and conceptual processes that lead to an understanding of music literature.1S Also acknowledged and challenged during this period was the fact that mankind lives in a visually orientated age. Although Aural Education ("H6rerziehung"), Comprehensive Musicianship and Aural Training are not directly linked, all three subjects have their roots in the same philosophy of understanding music through auditive awareness. According to Michael R. Rogers, educators in the United States of America are increasingly interested in all aspects concerning Aural Training.l6 One can therefore state with certainty that there is an increase in the importance of the role that the ear plays in music education in general, and more specifically, a growth in the acknowledgement of Aural Training. 1. NECESSITY FOR THE RESEARCH; ITS THESIS AND PURPOSE As is the case in most other research endeavours in disciplines other than music, research in the field of Aural Training emphasises isolated facets of the discipline. Investigations frequently concentrate on didactical approaches, music psychological issues and phenomena such as perfect pitch, tone deafness and chromesthesia. Such "microscopic" research procedures should not be criticised, because Music Education in general surely benefits from them. However, the need also exists to examine the Aural Training domain in a broader sense, considering all its different aspects in a "stock-taking" process. Such an "inventory" approach has primarily diagnostical worth. Meaningful recommendations for changes in curriculum planning and teaching approaches can only be made if one has an overall view of the contents and structure of this field. The following are reasons why Aural Training can benefit from the results of this research: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Current didactical trends can be distinguished and problem areas regarding teaching principles and curriculum planning can be uncovered. The influence of the following factors on the didactics of Aural Training can be examined: (i) published and unpublished teaching materials, (ii) research about Aural Training and other related disciplines (iii) computer-assisted software "Inherited" instruction methods and unpublished information on Aural Training can be explored. General impressions of, and assumptions about, the subject can be investigated. Recommendations can be made for more successful ways of teaching Aural Training. 14 Rudolf Frisius, "Musikunterricht als auditive Wahrnehmungserziehung" in Egon Kraus (Ed.), Musik in Schule und Gesellschaft: Vortrage der neunten Bundesschulmusikwoche Kassel 1972. Mainz: B. Schott and Sons, 1972pp. 156-167. 15 John Buccheri, "Musicianship at Northwestern" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 4/2 (Fall 1990) p. 127. 16 Michael R. Rogers, "Editorial: Trends and Issues in Music Theory Teaching" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 1/2 (Spring 1987) pp. 2-3. 3 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za The thesis of this study is that a more internationally orientated overview of the field of Aural Training is lacking. Meaningful recommendations for effective and necessary changes in the planning and instruction of Aural Training can only be made if such an overview is available. With the intent of improving music pedagogy, the purpose of this research is therefore primarily to develop an understanding of the general state of Aural Training as presented at a tertiary level in 1991. Secondary to this purpose, recommendations for a theory towards Aural Training are made. 2. METHODOLOGY In order ,to present an overview on the state of Aural Training, the study is divided into two sections. An in-depth theoretical survey on the didactics and teaching methods of Aural Training is conducted in the first section (Chapter Two). The second section (Chapter Three), attempts to describe objectively the state of Aural Training in three countries by means of a practical questionnaire-based survey, thus forming the empirical part of the research .17 Three hundred randomly selected Aural Training lecturers, teaching at tertiary institutions located in the Republic of South Africa, the Federal Republic of Germany and the United States of America, are included in this survey. This was done in order to (a) measure the extent to which some didactical approaches, described in Chapter Two, are reflected in syllabi, and (b) to assemble unpublished methods and approaches. Personal interviews with lecturers at German Musikhochschulen, as well as observations and experiences of the ways in which Aural Training is presented at different Musikhochschulen, form part of the practical investigation. The collected information is not presented in an autonomous section, but is used to add to, and to interpret, the data collected by means of the questionnaire. With the picture on the state of Aural Training outlined, a third section (Chapter Four) contributes suggestions for an improved approach to Aural Training. 3. LIMITATIONS A few limitations occur with regard to the use of a questionnaire as data-collecting instrument, and the limited availability of some research material such as dissertations, books and computer software. Due to the restriction on the length of a questionnaire-based survey, an unavoidable bias exists because all the questions concerning Aural Training can never be included in one questionnaire. Another questionnaire with different questions would emphasise other aspects of Aural Training. The questions thus have an influence on the information provided by the answers. 17 Objective in this context means that statistical procedures were involved in the survey. 4 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za In order to examine thoroughly necessary to explore dissertations Interlibrary the state of Aural Training appropriate literature. This proved in the abovementioned to be problematic three countries, because it was also the latest publications of and other literature written in the United States of America were difficult to obtain in Germany.lS services only functions within the European borders. In many cases only abstracts of dissertations were available. Furthermore, only a restricted examination of Aural Training computer programs was possible. As it was unrealistic to purchase all the different Aural Training software, the researcher often had to depend on so-called demonstration disks supplied by only a few distributors.19 become outdated unknown", Computers and software have been developing quickly.20 Also, of more than thirty letters written to retailers, which could indicate that there is a substantial "turnover" at lightning speed and fifteen were returned in software retailers. "address Another less likely explanation for this could be that the addresses given in certain directories are faulty. These restrictions, however, did not have a significant influence on the research, which could still be completed as planned. 4. REVIEW OF RELATED RESEARCH AND LITERATURE Little research has been done on the general state (the why, what, how and where) of Aural Training. Only a limited number of surveys could be found on this topic. The majority of investigations into curriculum planning and teaching materials used were completed in the United States of America (USA). No such investigations could be found in the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG). Although two surveys on the contents of external aural examination syllabi were conducted in the Republic of South Africa (RSA), no study of the contents and methods of undergraduate Aural Training offered at universities could be found.21 No comparative study on the curricula of the RSA, FRG and the USA could be traced. The researcher attempts to conduct, amongst other things, a comparative study on the curricula countries. This is the major difference between this enterprise and all other investigations of the above introduced in the following pages. IS The researcher was based in the Federal Republic of Germany during the time in which this research was completed. 19 William R. Higgins lists more than fifty different Aural Training programs in his Computer Applications in Music Education for the Apple II Series, Macintosh, & mM Microcomputers. Grantham, Pennsylvania: Higgins, 1990. 20 One retailer, for example, mentioned that the specific program referred to, was published in the 1987 catalogue and was not available anymore! 21 Anna C. Naude, 'n Ondersoek na die geskiktheid van sillabi vir gehoortoetse samens. Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Stellenbosch 1987. S. Paxinos, "Examination Ear Tests" in Musicus, 15/1 (1987) pp. 14-21. 5 in gegradeerde musiekek- Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 4.1 Research on Aural Curriculum Planning Six investigations into the state of various aspects of curriculum planning could be found and they are chronologically presented here. The first survey to be discussed is the project Research into Applied Musical Perception (RAMP), in which George Pratt, Michael Henson and Simon Cargill examined Aural Training in the first year of tertiary education at the music department of Huddersfield Polytechnic in 1985. They first investigated music students' attitudes towards Aural Training at various tertiary institutions and then sampled the contents of Aural Training courses at several institutions. Against this background of collected information, a tertiary first-year course was devised and incorporated into the music curriculum at the Huddersfield Polytechnic. No information was available on the methodology of the two surveys. Neither in their article Aural Teaching in the First Year of Teniary Education: An Outline for a Course, nor in their book Aural Awareness: Principles and Practice was it explained how the data on students' attitudes and curriculum contents were collected.22 Curriculum contents of institutions in the United Kingdom most probably formed the core of this examination. The described 'basic diet' of conventional aural examinations very much resembled the contents of the syllabi of The Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music and Trinity College of Music. 23 Results of the surveys showed that students were largely dissatisfied with their Aural Training, seeing much of it as irrelevant to their musical needs. Regarding the contents of courses, most were strongly biased towards pitch and rhythm dictation, with less attention given to other musical parameters such as • • • • • the range and tessitura of instruments and voices the density and the distribution of sounds and the textures within which they are performed the range of timbral colours, of dynamics, articulations and phrasing of which they are capable where sounds are positioned in space and how they relate to each other structurally above all, the variations in pace at which all these elements may occur. The authors maintained that the balance should be redressed and that attention should be focused on the neglected elements of musical expression. The first-year course that crystallised from their findings was based on the principle that "'aural' training teaching should be concerned with relevance, with teaching skills that performers, composers and active listeners actualI)' use in their daily musical lives. "24 Twelve different teaching areas were outlined in their course addressing, amongst others, less conventional methods such as the elements of musical expression, timbre, the role of criticism, structural hearing, imaging and improvisation. The form in which the contents was taught embodied three processes, namely lecturing, discussing and practical 22 23 24 George Pratt and Michael Henson, "Aural Teaching in the First Year of Tertiary Education: An Outline for a Course" in British Journal of Music Education, 4/2 (1987) pp. 115-137. George Pratt, Michael Henson and Simon Cargill, Aural Awareness: Principles and Practice. Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1990. The Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music, Aural Tests Part I-IV. London: ARSM, 1972. Trinity College OfMusic, Sample Ear Tests. London: Trinity College of Music, [n.d.]. George Pratt and Michael Henson, "Aural Teaching in the First Year of Tertiary Education: An Outline for a Course" in British Journal of Music Education, 4/2 (1987) p. 115. 6 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za activity, which included 'do-it-yourself' elements. Aims and intentions, concepts and methods were explained to the students by means of an informal kind of lecturing. During the discussion sessions, students could share experiences, ask questions and pursue topics. Because of the fact that conventional Aural Training often proved to be a 'one-sided' affair, dominated by piano dictation with the teacher 'feeding' material to the students, performance on their own instruments and singing formed an important part of the newly devised syllabus. Although the above surveys of Pratt et al. concentrated on tertiary curriculum planning, they were limited to the United Kingdom and fall outside of the researcher's set geographical boundaries. Their teaching principles and suggestions can, however, be fruitfully applied and incorporated into the researcher's model for improved Aural Training presented in Chapter Four. A second curriculum-based survey was undertaken by the researcher in 1987.25 The contents of, and the music examples given in, the auraltest syllabi of the University of South Africa, The Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music (United Kingdom) and Trinity College of Music (United Kingdom) were examined and evaluated.26 In order to evaluate the content validity of the tests, a taxonomy of the objectives of Aural Training was constructed. Learning process theories such as concentration, age requirements and memory abilities, as well as Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives, were built into the taxonomy. This formed the major component of the evaluation process, serving as a criterion to which the examination requirements of the three institutions were compared. An empirical element was. introduced, in that the construct validity of the UNISA Grade Four aural tests were examined, and the results correlated with the results obtained in a modified version of the first three tests of Richard Collwell's Music Achievement Tests. It was concluded that certain parameters such as dynamics, timbre and texture were neglected in the Aural Training domain, with most emphasis placed on pitch and duration. Only selected attributes of the pitch and duration parameters were included, while aural awareness of phrasing, articulation, agogic nuances and tempo were ignored. Music examples from the Baroque and Classical style periods mainly were used as teaching and testing material, whereas music from the twentieth century was totally absent. Little approximation between the contents of Music Theory syllabi and the Aural Training syllabi existed. Children and students were underestimated and exposed to tests that did not comply with their internal learning potential. The systematic build-up of course objectives and teaching methods proved to be inadequate. Although a general examination of the contents of the Grade VIII and Licentiate syllabi, which showed some similarity with tertiary syllabi, was included, a need still exists to explore tertiary South African curricula in depth. Apart from the empirical investigation which included only UNISA Grade Four pupils, the content validity of the rest of 25 Anna C. Naude, 'n Ondersoek na die geskiktheid van sillabi vir gehoortoetse in gegradeerde musiekeksamens. Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Stellenbosch 1987. 26 University of South Africa (UNISA), Practical Musicianship (Aural Tests) Appendix B, Written Examination Syllabuses. Pretoria: UNISA. 1985. Practical Musicianship Grades 1 - Licentiate. Pretoria: UNISA, [n.d.]. 7 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za the syllabi was not statistically questioned. German and North American curricula contents were not included in the survey. A third survey with the same purpose of examining the Aural Training syllabi of the University of South Africa, The Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music and Trinity College of Music was completed by S. Paxinos in 1987.27 No statistical procedures investigation. were involved. Paxinos recommended The results corresponded with the results obtained the creation of standardised tape-recorded examinations in the above with written responses in order to minimise the interference of examiners' personal idiosyncrasies. Fourthly, during the Second Institute for Music Theory Pedagogy Studies (Boulder, Colorado 1989) a questionnairebased survey was administered to the eighty-seven participants, was to collect information curriculum. Questions instruction, teaching about, regarding methods, and gain insights Aural Training curriculum mostly undergraduate into, the teaching of Music Theory entrance and final examination planning, theory teachers.28 The purpose in the undergraduate requirements, etc. were posed amongst other questions computer-assisted on written Music Theory skills. Responses revealed that the moveable doh method was used by 44 % of all the participants, with scale degree numbers the second most used method (22 %). Ninety-one percent did not make use of KodaIy hand-signals in conjunction with sight singing, whereas 69% used a conducting pattern in conjunction with sight singing. Textbook materials for sight singing were used by 91 % of the participants. Examples from the literature were placed second (52%), and materials composed by the teacher third (44 %). At the end of the theory course in sight singing, 62 % of the participants indicated that students were expected to sing at sight a melody which modulated to a common related key. Only 18% indicated that sight singing of a melody with no tonal center was required. As to other fmal examination requirements, • • • • • write two or more parts of a four-part or modulation (73 %) identify phrase relationships (53 %) write a two-phrase melody containing write two or more parts of a four-part (33%) write a transcription from a recording With regard to computer-assisted their Music Theory curriculum. instruction, Computer the results were as follows: choral-style phrase which includes some chromatic harmony chromaticism (50 %) chorale-style phrase which includes only diatonic harmony (8%). 57 % of the participants required this type of instruction assignments were monitored (a) by the instructor along with checking individuals (28%), (b) occasionally in class (26%) (c) by other methods (24%). Responses of the conference participants were, however, not representative of the whole population of Aural Training lecturers located in the USA and the results and conclusions can therefore not be generalised. Participants were not randomly selected, but decided themselves to attend the conference or not. 27 28 S. Paxinos, "Examination Ear Tests" in Musicus, 15/1 (1987) pp. 14-21. Roger E. Foltz and Alice M. Lanning, "Report on the Institute for Music Theory Pedagogy Studies II" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 3/2 (Fall 1989) pp. 243-253. 8 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za A fifth survey conducted during 1990 was that of Randall G. Pembrook and H. Lee Riggins. They aimed to provide Aural Training teachers with information on current methods and materials for teaching aural skills in colleges and universities in the USA.29 In order to also identify changes in the teaching of Aural Training over the last decade, a comparison of the results with earlier studies done by Collins and Killam et al. was included by them.30 A questionnaire was sent to all co-ordinators of Music Theory at 908 colleges and universities in the USA that offer any type of Bachelor's degree in music. The questions were designed to gather information on organizational approaches, material used for sight singing and dictation purposes, methods used to teach sight singing and error detection, time divided between sight singing, dictation, error detection and recognition/identification, as well as the extent to which computer-based instruction was incorporated into Aural Training. The response rate was 37% (336 institutions, representing 45 states). Sixty percent of the respondents scheduled separate classes for Aural Training. The majority of respondents indicated that 100 minutes per week was spent on instruction for both freshmen and sophomore classes. Music for Sight Singing by Robert W. Ottman (2nd edition 1967), A New Approach to Sight Singing by Sol Berkowitz, Gabriel Frontrier and Leo Kraft (1976), and Sight Singing Complete by Bruce Benward, (4th edition 1986) were the three principal sources used for sight singing. In this respect the results supported the outcome of the research by Collins and Killam. As in the survey of the Second Institute for Music Theory Pedagogy Studies, the movable doh method proved to be the most preferred method used in the USA. Benward's Ear Training: a Technique for Listening (2nd edition 1983) was the foremost text used for dictation and error detection. Time-wise the least attention was given to error detection. Seventy one percent of the respondents made use of some form of computer-assisted aural instruction. Harmonic Dictator by Temporal Acuity Products was the most used software and the Apple II series the most used computer. The main difference between the researcher's endeavour, the Second Institute for Music Theory Pedagogy Studies, and Pembrook and Riggins's survey lies in the fact that the latter two were limited to the USA. Similarities between the two abovementioned surveys and the questionnaire compiled by the researcher are: (a) the questionnaires were completed by undergraduate lecturers, (b) .certain questions had the same contents, and (c) the answers were analysed by statistical means. The results gathered at the Second Institute for Music Theory Pedagogy conference, as well the results of Pembrook and Riggins are compared with the outcome of this research to interpret thoroughly the state of Aural Training in the USA in Chapter Three. The last survey to be discussed on the state of Aural Training was completed by Shey-Tzer Yao in 1990. The purpose of his study was "to conduct a review of the effectiveness, as perceived by the students, of the aural skills curriculum required of all music majors in two post-secondary institutions in Taiwan ... in order to make recommendations for 29 Randall G. Pembrook and H. Lee Riggins, "Send Help!": Aural Skills Instruction in U.S. Colleges and Universities" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 4/2 (Fall 1990) pp. 231-240. 30 Irma Collins, Current Attitudes and Trends in the Teaching of Sight Singing in Higher Education. D.M.A, Temple University 1979; and Rosemary Killam et al., Survey and Results: Most-Used Theory Texts in U.S. Colleges and Universities. The University of North Texas, 1987, both quoted by Pembrook and Riggins. 9 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za improvement. "31 Apart from the use of a questionnaire to ascertain students' perception of instruction programmes in relation to a number of selected, categorised programme aspects, Yao also studied the curricular content as prescribed by the National Taiwan Ministry of Education, and as interpreted by the teachers at the National Taiwan Normal University and the National Institute of the Arts. Furthermore, a study of evaluation techniques and outcomes, initial placement tests and student progress was included. The response rates of the two institutions included in the survey were respectively 60 % and 51 %, with a high degree of positive correlations between responses from both (r = 0.86). Respondents were chosen on a voluntarily basis. Findings revealed the following information: • • • • • • • efficiency of the use of ability groupings (91.1 %) perceived validity of the initial placement tests (67.3 %) understanding of the programme's instructional goals and objectives (52.8%) satisfaction regarding instructional content (47.7 %) adequacy of the teaching strategies (47.5 %) satisfaction of evaluation techniques (45.4 %) students were least satisfied with aspects regarding the course scheduling and duration. Recommendations were made for a revised Aural Training curriculum and for a revised initial placement test, with sections regarding clarification of objectives and suggested classroom strategies. The main differences between the investigation of Shey-Tzer Yao and the researcher's endeavour lie firstly in the fact that Yao conducted his research in Taiwan only, and secondly that questionnaires were addressed to students and not to lecturers of Aural Training. 4.2 Articles, books and congress reports on curriculum designs at selected tertiary institutions In the previous section "formal" empirical and/or analytical investigations were discussed. This section briefly describes "inforInal" articles and books written, as well as lectures read, based on Aural Training lecturers' observations made at -the Institutes where they taught. Empirical procedures were, with a few exceptions, not involved and general statements were made not only on the curriculum of an institution, but in some cases also on trends recognised in a country. In his article Teaching Music Theory: The European Conservatory, Per-Gunnar Alldahl commented on Aural Training methods used at the Stockholm Conservatory of Music.32 Alldahl stressed the importance of scrutinizing and revising Aural Training strategies because of their influence on all music activities. 31 32 Shey-Tzer Yao, The Aural Skills Development Program in Music Departments of Two Post-Secondary Institutions in Taiwan: Status and Recommendations. Doctoral dissertation, Ball State University 1990. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1990. Per-Gunnar Alldahl, "Teaching Music Theory: The European Conservatory" as translated by Bo Alphonce in Journal of Music Theory, 18/1 (Spring 1974) pp. 111-123. 10 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Aural Training at the Stockholm Conservatory of Music consisted of four to six students grouped together in one class per week over a period of four to six semesters. Students were requested to bring their instruments along. Emphasis was placed on three areas: • • • repetition (playing back a heard musical phrase), playing by ear, and improvisation sight reading and dictation formal and structural hearing. Alldahl criticised traditional Aural Training for being limited to neutral and isolated material without advancing to music as a whole. According to him, the point of departure had to be the use of selected compositions musical entities and chosen because they represented Apart from material from the music repertoire, certain characteristic rhythms, treated as melodies and/or harmonies. Laerebog i Rytmelaesning (Sight-Reading Rhythm) by Jorgen Jersild, Modus Novus by Lars Edlund and folk-songs were used as teaching/study material .. Robert Gauldin described the teaching of Music Theory at conservatories, work and performance • • • • • concentrating on Aural Training, creative analysis.33 He listed five basic aural skills: the conversion of sound to symbol, i.e dictation the conversion of symbol to sound, i.e. sight singing the comparison of sound to symbol, i.e. error detection the conversion of symbol to imagined sound, i.e. inner hearing immediate reproduction in sound of a previous sound source. According to Gauldin, dictation and sight singing were traditionally reproduction associated with Aural Training, with 'immediate in sound of a previous sound source' the least explored skill. A few problems surrounding the didactical aspects of Aural Training were also addressed. Aural comprehension a 'note-to-note' of musical phrases was, for example, absent and dictation procedure was often followed with students adding a few more notes every time the example was played. The student started to work at a detailed level without considering question. Aural analysis, introductory also implying 'oral analysis', was prescribed broader aspects of the passage in as a remedy for this problem. At an level students could comment orally on temporal and tonal (melodic and harmonic) aspects, articulation, dynamics, texture, timbre and structural processes. With this information, the student would first be able to construct the outline of the passage and then move on to a more detailed phase. During the D-A-CH conference- in 1976 a few of the papers read referred to aspects of aural curriculum planning. Roland Mackamul discussed non-musical to him, two main requirements circumstances that-influenced the methods of Aural Training.34 According for successful teaching were absent in the FRG. First of all, a well thought-through education system, starting with Aural Training at a very young age, was needed. Secondly, teachers with sound pedagogical Aural Training credentials were required. 33 Robert Gauldin, "Teaching Music Theory: The Conservatory" pp.75-90. 34 Roland Mackamul, "EffektiviHitsmindemde Faktoren im Bereich der GehOrbildung" in Josef Mayr-Kem (Ed.), Materialien und Dokumente aus der Musikpadagogik, Band 6: Musikalische Grundschulung an Ausbildungsstatten fUr Musikberufe - Dokumentation tiber die D-A-CH-Tagung 1976. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1978 pp. 15-18. 11 in Journal of Music Theory, 18/1 (Spring 1974) Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Because of the disregard of these requirements, the starting level of Aural Training at Musikhochschulen was based on rudimentary elements. In order to solve these problems, Mackamul recommended that centrally located music schools should include preparatory, Aural Training courses in their curricula, and the opportunity of choosing Aural Training as a second major subject would help to prevent the employment of uninterested lecturers.35 Regarding teaching procedures, Mackamul briefly reported on his experiences of individual Aural Training classes at the Musikhochschule in Stuttgart. Twenty minutes per week were available to every student in 1977 (1992: thirty minutes). Lecturers, however, could freely organise students in smaller groups in longer lessons. Mackamul warned against the merging of Music Theory ("Tonsatz") and Aural Training classes, because aural skills normally develop at a slower pace than written Music Theory skills. Peter Wettstein reported on the Aural Training system used at the Musikhochschule in Ziirich.36 Three goals were distinguished, namely to develop • • • analytical hearing as well as the ability to transform what is heard into symbols or notation inner hearing precision schooling regarding rhythm, intonation, dynamics and timbre. With these goals in mind, the obligatory Aural Training curriculum was divided into different levels: elementary levels ("Unterstufe") one and two, intermediate levels ("Mittelstufe") one to four, and the advanced level ("Oberstufe"). The latter course emphasised the various skills required by conductors, Music Theory majors, etc. Students were placed in different levels after the entrance test and grouped in classes of eight to twelve. After an average of seven semesters the [mal examination, complying with the difficulty of the intermediate level four, was taken. Apart from the compulsory aural classes twice a week, other non-mandatory classes were available to students. They also had access to a programmed audiocassette-based Aural Training course located in the music library. The efficiency of this audio course was tested with positive results. Regarding didactical concepts,. students were recommended to attend a "solrege" choir course during the first two semesters, in which sight singing was stressed. The domination of the piano sound was broken in favour of other timbres, including electronic sounds. Emphasis was placed on memory as a way of developing analytical skills. Dictating a simple musical phrase as a whole from memory was preferred over dictating a more difficult phrase in a measure by measure approach. Music material was drawn from as many different style periods as possible. The development of inner hearing was enhanced by the programmed audiocassette course. In this course, recordings of small and larger choral and instrumental chamber music were made with built-in discrepancies between notation and sound. Attention was not focused solely on sight singing, rhythmical and harmonic dictation, but other aspects such as timbre, dynamics, intonation, form and style were also taken into consideration. 35 In the German music.education system, children and adults interested in playing an instrument can learn this at an extra-curricular school called the "Musikschule". 36 Peter Wettstein, '"GehOrbildungsunterricht an der Musikhochschule Ziirich" in Josef Mayr-Kem (Ed.), Materialien und Dokumente aus der Musikpadagogik, Band 6: Musikalische Grundschulung an Ausbildungsstatten fUr Musikberufe - Dokumentation iiber die D-A-CH-Tagung 1976. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1978 pp. 23-25. 12 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za The structure of the Aural Training curriculum at the Musikhochschule Saarland in Saarbrticken described by Hans Lonnendonker, resembles the abovementioned curriculum37. Weaker students who failed the entrance test were given the opportunity to attend preparatory classes before repeating the test. Books written by Roland Mackamul and Monica Quistorp were used together with French solfege methods, not including absolute solmisation. A short summary of the contents of Music Theory and Aural Training entrance requirements at Musikhochschulen, conservatories and church music schools in the FRG, was presented by Werner Muller-Bech.38 According to him, the contents were more or less the same in the 28 schools examined, with aural recognition of intervals, rhythms, chords, dictation and sight singing included. Music Theory and Aural Training were combined in 1974/75 to form a subject called Musical Foundation Training ("Musikalische Grundschulung") at .the Musikhochschule Graz in Austria.39 The main idea behind this combination was to provide students with practice models which could be applied in musical professions. Objectives were to develop listening abilities, to "de-abstract" Music Theory, and to develop the ability to associate notation and sound with each other. Books by Paul Hindemith and Roland Mackamul were frequently used. In his book Teaching Approaches in Music Theory - An Overview of Pedagogical Philosophies, Michael R. Rogers attempted to summarise and compare trends that had an affect on college-level theory teaching in the USA during the 1980s.40 Special emphasis was placed on examining the philosophies and assumptions behind textbooks, materials and technologies as well as on comparing teaching approaches and concepts. Contents included the educational objectives of Music Theory, philosophical orientations, mind training, analysis, Aural Training and teaching techniques. It is often difficult to distinguish between Roger's summary, comparison and criticisms of teaching approaches, and his recommendations made for better teaching circumstances and methods. But little information was given on the actual state of Aural Training especially in his chapter concerning 'Ear Training'. The value of Rogers's general observations lies. primarily in his recommendations for certain teaching approaches to and theories on towards Aural Training. He suggested that an integration between the conceptual and perceptual components of students' training 37 Hans Lonnendonker, "Musiktheoretisches Grundstudium an der Musikhochschule des Saarlandes in Saarbriicken" in Josef Mayr-Kern (Ed.), Materialien und Dokumente aus der Musikpadagogik, Band 6: Musikalische Grundschulung an Ausbildungsstatten fUr Musikberufe - Dokumentation tiber die D-A-CHTagung 1976. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1978 pp. 47-51. 38 Werner Muller-Bech, "Anforderungen bei den Aufnahmepriifungen der Musikhochschulen in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland bezogen auf die Musiktheorie und GehOrbildung" in Josef Mayr-Kern (Ed.), Materialien und Dokumente aus der Musikpadagogik, Band 6: Musikalische Grundschulung an Ausbildungsstiitten fUr Musikberufe - Dokumentation tiber die D-A-CH-Tagung 1976. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1978 pp. 43-46. 39 Wolfgang Messer, "Musikalische Grundschulung an der Hochschule Graz" in Josef Mayr-Kern (Ed.), Materialien und Dokumente aus der Musikpadagogik, Band 6: Musikalische Grundschulung an Ausbildungsstiitten fUr Musikberufe - Dokumentation tiber die D-A-CH-Tagung 1976. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1978 pp. 55-57. . 40 Michael R. Rogers, Teaching Approaches in Music Theory - An Overview of Pedagogical Philosophies. Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1984. 13 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za must take place. In describing the inseparable cohesion between thinking and listening, Rogers maintained that the more one thinks, the more one hears, and vice versa, referring to this phenomenon as the understanding ear and the hearing mind. Many dictation and sight singing texts as well as research projects were criticised for focusing solely on drill-and-repetition aspects. In this approach no distinction was made between sound events (requiring just ears) and musical events (requiring mind and ears). More interpretative hearing situations tended to be ignored in favour of absolute right and wrong answers. Teachers sometimes eliminated longer musical examples from Aural Training programmes, because they did not fit the "preselected category of 'problem-with-neat-solution'." Rogers, on the other hand, recommended: "... an approach to ear training that brings the full underpinnings of analytical modes of thought into play because such an approach is both pedagogically sound - making the job easier through reinforcement with conceptual supports - and because it is musically sound. Structural hearing that grows out of organizational principles and psychological processes of the mind and music is the only way that Inusic or music study makes sense.... "41 In the Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy a series of articles on specific university-level theory programmes of the San Diego State University, New England Conservatory of Music. Indiana University and Northwestern University were published. Details concerning the historical background, overall goals, course outlines, contents and methods of the different Music Theory disciplines were broadly described. David Ward-Steinman gave an overview of the three-year Comprehensive Musicianship programme followed at the San Diego State University. 42 With the primary objective of teaching students to deal intelligently with all kinds of music by means of an integrated teaching approach, emphasis was placed on composition, analysis, aural skills and classroom performances. Courses included harmony, 'ear' training, sight singing, both sixteenth- and eighteenthcentury counterpoint, form and analysis, arranging and orchestration, composition, improvisation, conducting and ensemble performance. Music literature from all historical periods as well as non-Western music from African, Indian and Asian cultures was covered. What is important is the fact that all these courses were taught comprehensively in relation to each other. Eight overall goals were distinguished, for example: to recognise at sight (notation) or by sound (live or recorded) specific instances of topics studied when presented in. new, unfamiliar contexts or compositions; to improvise in a given style; to be able to function alternatively as conductor, performer, coach, editor or arranger of material for class use and study; to be able to dictate melodies; to sight read and sight sing with fluency and musicianship, also concentrating on matters such as tempo, dynamics and phrasing. There were two approaches to Aural Training and sight singing at the university, although the goals to be achieved were the same. Some teachers used a programmed language laboratory approach, while others used the music literature for their exercises. Unique aspects of ~e Comprehensive Musicianship programme included sight singing 41 Michael R. Rogers, Teaching Approaches in Music Theory - An Overview of Pedagogical Philosophies. Edwardsville: Southern illinois University Press, 1984 pp. 101, 103-104. 42 David Ward-Steinman, "Comprehensive Musicianship at San Diego State University" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 1/2 (Fall 1987) pp. 129-147. 14 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za sessions with classes combined to form a chorus and orchestra contents of improvisation classes included phrase improvisation, to sight read works from different periods. the completion use of different modes, ground-bass and chaconne patterns, as well as improvising of antecedent-consequent The pairs, the different kinds of counterpoint to given lines, reading graphic scores, etc. Students who were interested in acting as teaching assistants had to register for Comprehensive Musicianship Pedagogy. Weaker students who failed the entrance test were advised to attend the Basic Musicianship for Non-Music Majors. The value of the Comprehensive Musicianship programme was tested by means of experimental between 1967 and 1969. The experimental group who followed the Comprehensive and control groups programme surpassed the level of the control groups in every single case. Sightsinging at New England Scripp and Joan Meyaard.43 Conservatory of Music is the title of an article written by Lyle Davidson, Larry As the title indicates, all attention in the article was focused on sight singing. It was argued that a solfege programme is the doorway to developing a broad musical literacy in performance. Three different aspects of the philosophy behind their sight singing programme were described. In the first part a description was given of music psychological principles from a developmental of Feldman and Piaget. This served as a background musical knowledge was presented as moving through externalised knowledge (singing to demonstrate . imagination). for the ramification perspective, with references to the work of sight singing skills. The growth of three levels: kinesthetic knowledge (enactive musical intentions) fingering), and internalised representation (inner aural In the second part of the article, the pedagogical framework used for teaching purposes was based on a cognitive process model. Assessment models were presented in the third part. The solfege programme followed at the New England conservatory additional advanced assistantship programme. Emphasis was placed on sight singing performances appropriate nuances and musical expression, fixed doh policy formed the pedagogical different textbooks. psychology as well as on problem-solving, which included rather than on memorising materials. A basis with material taken from the music literature and more than ten The majority of books used were of French origin. Reading for example, psychology and music as well as term papers formed an important part of the class work. Teaching assistants participated weekly pedagogy discussion. consisted of four semesters (two years), with an in a seminar, where topics such as videotapes and protocol analyses were used for group review and "Solfege parties" occurred occasionally during the semester where students had to sightread individually and in ensembles. More "orchestral accompaniment" The multiple ("standardised advanced were grouped together to form a solfege orchestra providing the for a soloist in a concerto! assessment techniques departmental students introduced examinations") Profiles of errors could be constructed in the third and fmal part of the article included both quantative and qualitative individually analysis ("error analysis and classroom observations"). for all students, thus providing a diagnosis of strengths and weaknesses. 43 Lyle Davidson, Larry Scripp and Joan Meyaard, "Sightsinging at New England Conservatory Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 2/1 (Spring 1988) pp. 3-68. 15 of Music" in Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za The undergraduate core music curriculum at Indiana University, as sketched by Mary H. Wennerstrom, under- went two major theory curriculum developments during the 1960s and 1970s.44 As a modified version of this second curriculum development was still in use, the curriculum of the 1980s and future plans were only briefly referred to. According to Wennerstrom, some of the basic ideas formulated during the 1950s were still practised in 1989. One of these convictions was that a strong emphasis should be placed on listening to music. Sight singing was not merely included for the sake of developing solfege ability, but rather to increase musical skills in performing and listening, as well as providing a way of demonstrating musical structure. Music examples had to be taken from a broad historical spectrum including, the twentieth century. As a result of involvement in comprehensive musicianship projects, the core curriculum was changed in the 1970s. All musical skills (Le. sight singing, 'ear' training and realizing of certain concepts at the keyboard) were put into separate courses, thus they could be evaluated individually. Contents were co-ordinated with theory and literature courses and were taken simultaneously with these. Entrance examinations showed that over 70 % of the prospective students did not meet the expected rudimentary aural and written requirements. In order to solve this problem, a remedial course was introduced in the 1980s which had to be taken concurrently with the first semester skills course. In order to help students realise the importance of skills courses, a minimum of a C grade has been required since 1979 in the four-semester Aural Training courses. The last course dealt exclusively with twentieth-century music. Regarding teaching materials, Studying Rhythm by Anne C. Hall and Music/or Sight Singing by Robert W. Ottman were commonly used. Each co-ordinator developed an organised set of materials for Aural Training and supplemental essentials. Taped materials and computer-assisted instruction were continually revised and expanded. Materials covered in the skills courses included meter/rhythm, clefs, scales/modes, intervals and melodic patterns, two-part, functional harmony (as well as '20th-century functional patterns') and chord types. Students received a great deal of guided practice by meeting four times a week, twice in large groups and twice in small groups, with the fifth day set aside for individual hearing and tutorials. Guided listening assignments involving substantial musical excerpts were used successfully. The transfer of skills from isolated material to contextual listening was emphasised, and it was no coincidence that a work of considerable importance was written on this topic by Gary Wittlich (one of the staff members) and Lee Humphries.45 At Northwestern University, where a comprehensive musicianship teaching approach was followed, aural skills were taught in separate classes. John Buccheri indicated, though, that these skills were not intentionally combined with the study of Music Theory or History. 46 Analytical listening and singing were included in musicianship classes as a 44 Mary H. Wennerstrom, "The Undergraduate Core Music Curriculum at Indiana University" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 3/2 (Fall 1989) pp. 153-176. 45 Gary E. Wittlich and Lee Humphries, Ear Training - An Approach through Music Literature. New York: Harcourt Brace Yovanovich, 1974. 46 John Buccheri, "Musicianship at Northwestern" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 4/2 (Fall 1990) pp. 125-145. 16 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za means of understanding the literature discussed or analysed. Yet actual skills of sight singing and transcription were developed in separate classes divided into six levels spread over a period of two years. Literature corresponding to the style period studied in the musicianship class was utilised. The goals of this programme were to cultivate the students' ability to transfer aural skills to all areas of musical activity, and to provide them with knowledge of a broad repertoire of music. More specific objectives included the development of musical memory and inner hearing, transcription, selective listening and improvisation abilities. Computer-assisted Aural Training formed part of the curriculum. Finally, David A. Damschroder, a lecturer at the University of Minnesota School of Music, pinpointed a severe problem with respect to theory classes when he wrote: "At most of the world's conservatories and universities, private instruction in performance is the norm. Students are offered engaging and appropriate repertoire chosen to accommodate their backgrounds, talents, and aspirations. Why, then, has this strategy been neglected in the teaching of music theory?"47 Seven themes were identified in his article, such as admission to a course, course schedule, diversification of homework, tests with options, banishing rigidity from grading, dealing with students entering the university, coping with students transferring from one university to another and students that graduate as well as 'rethinking skills training'. Under the heading Rethinking skills training, the relationship between theory and aural skills in terms of academic credits and contact hours was discussed. Students earned three credits in theory and one credit in Aural Training. Damschroder, however, pointed out that the attainment of mastery of skills was much more important than the supposedly one-third credit given to it. As a result of this students tended to invest more time in theory than in Aural Training. This educational system produced degree-holding musicians who were not competent in the aural skills component of their musical training. Recommendations by Damschroder included concurrent enrollment in first- and second-year courses for weaker students. Homework assignments on either audio tapes or with computer programs would, amongst other things, help to eliminate the piano-generated sound used during class. Sight singing assignments had to be given according to the ability of the student. He concluded: "Our ability to orient our instruction to individual needs profoundly influences our success in this endeavour. Indeed there is hope. "48' 47 David A. Damschroder, "Flexibility in the Theory Classroom: Strategies for the Management of Diversity" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 3/2 (Fall 1989) p. 177. 48 David A. Damschroder, "Flexibility in the Theory Classroom: Strategies for the Management of Diversity" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 3/2 (Fall 1989) p. 187. 17 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 4.3 Overview of research in the field of Aural Training As the purpose of this research endeavour is to sketch the general state of Aural Training, it seems logical also to , undertake an overview of other investigations in the field that are not solely related to curriculum planning. to do so, all the located surveys have been classified and categorised. outline, and only a few exemplary titles are introduced investigations In order The sole goal of this section is to serve as an in the discussion of each category. Results of individual are not discussed but are referred to in Chapters Two, Three and Four, where appropriate. A list containing full titles and details of all the research is given in Appendix A. The following diagram presents a summary of research topics. Because of the complex nature of Aural Training, only a few topics can be clinically placed in only one of the categories. Most of the categories are related to each other to some extent and, although the summarised diagram can be helpful to portray general trends, this dissection remains artificial. Interrelationships are indicated by fine lines, contrasting with the thicker lines used to indicate branching. In order to prevent confusion, columns only are indicated. music psychological the interrelationships Interrelationships between the didactical and related music psychological between the individual categories within the didactical aspects and related aspects columns are not indicated. Research in Aural Training can be broadly divided into Didactical Aspects and Related music psychological pects. Most research themes are grouped under the first heading, and although a few investigations approaches (Aspects applied in Aural Training), Related music psychological include cognitive aspects is still an unexplored area with little application of research results and theories to the teaching of Aural Training. 18 as- tlii4trti4ili()~~r(Jpi"()(Jq~.s .... t~lIlpaJ$(}n.sb~iQeentAr ....................siNfre~k$.> Q()11IP~rl$~n1 b~tWe~id~~~lid .. . . .. . .•••••••. f.r18~~d.J~;;'t,.j,;~~~i~~I •••••••. ...94Ti . ... Fig. 1.1 Overview of investigations into Aural Training and related research > ..• .l()n~d~(l.me$SQn4cbr()meslJie$ia .. PJJ;hb11l~1I~iic6#~iif~Cl~iich s . •...•.•. PSyQIIO~OGIQJ\J.,.ASPECTS ...........R.itA 1'gPMlJSIC Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Under Unexplored aspects research, topics that could be worthwhile incorporating into Aural Training are listed. into Aural perception, 49 Developmenral research,50 Learning processes,51 Phenomena such These can be subdivided as perfect pitch, tone deafness and chromesthesia52 and Miscellaneous53. The list of investigations given in Appendix A, covering these unexplored to Aural Training. psychological topics, however, is just a small sample of all the research that could possibly be applied As Aspects applied in Aural Training also refers to a lesser extent to the abovementioned music the first four categories are placed under both Applied and Unexplored aspects. Due to the principles, intertwined nature of aspects applied, this distinction is, however, not made in Appendix A, and the few studies that were found are all grouped together under the heading of Aspects applied to Aural Training. Research into Didactical aspects into Traditional perspectives and Recent of Aural Training can be subdivided perspectives, with Comprehensive theories, Inregration inro other disciplines, Curriculum planning, Comparisons between computer-assisted instruction and traditional approaches as well as Effects and efficiency appearing in both categories. Traditional perspectives are Programmed Aural Training (not Computer-assisted Aural Training), Selected teaching strategies, as well as Comparisons between selected strategies. These perspectives are traditional in the sense that the explored topics concentrate mainly on methods used since at least the beginning of the twentieth century, principles. with little attention Audiocassette Computer-assisted given to the use of electronic programmed Aural Training devices and the application is the youngest "traditional" of music psychological method applied and preceded Aural Training. Computer-assisted Aural Training, the incorporation of Twentieth-Century Music as well as music psychological influences noticeable in Aural analysis are all grouped together as Recent perspectives that have been progressively in use for the past twenty years. The youngest of these three is Aural analysis, which has not yet fully matured as a research subject. Regarding Comprehensive theories, the work done by Emily Ruth Brink and Richard Douglas Ashley54 counts amongst the few studies on this topic. Both strove towards an extensive approach in the development of general aural 49 50 51 52 53 54 Hans-Reinhard 1975. Biock, Zur Intonationsbeturteilung David J. Hargreaves, 1986. The Developmental kontextbezogener Psychology of Music. Intervalle. Cambridge: Regensburg: Cambridge Gustav Bosse, University Press, Peter R. Webster, "Conceptual Bases for Creative Thinking in Music" in J. Craig Peery, Irene Weiss Peery and Thomas Draper (Eds), Music and Child Development. New York: Springer, 1987. Eva Marie Heyde, 1987. Was ist absolutes Horen? Eine musikpsychologische Marianne Hassler, Musikalisches Talent und raumliche University Tiibingen 1984. Tiibingen: B61k, 1984. Begabung. Untersuchung. Doctoral dissertation, Miinchen: Profil, Eberhard-Karls- Emily Ruth Brink, A Cognitive Approach to the Teaching of Aural Skills viewed as Applied Music Theory. Doctoral dissertation, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 1980. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1980. Richard Douglas Ashiey, Toward a Theory of Instruction in Aural Skills. Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 1982. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1982. 20 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za skills, with much emphasis placed on the music psychological principles of cognition. Brink's theory crystallised in an applied Music Theory programme, with aural and analytical training viewed as complementary- components, whereas Ashley's theories led to the development of a computer program. Integration into other disciplines is put in both the Traditional and Recent perspectives categories, because of the auditive nature of music. The ear plays a role in every facet of music, but it is only recently that this integration has started to function on a conscious level. The move away from a merely fragmented approach to a more holistic way of teaching aural skills emphasises the importance of integration. Bernita Douglas, for example, provided guide-lines for an integrated approach to piano teaching in her thesis.55 Surveys of Curriculum planning were discussed in sections 4.1 and 4.2. and are therefore not mentioned here. Research concerning the use of audiocassettes and other not computer-based devices are combined under Programmed Aural Training. The work done by Nancy Marie Bodenstein and James C. Carlsen serve as examples of this type of research.56 "Identifying successful dictation strategies" by Gary Potter was placed in the category Selected teaching strategies.57 Three different instructional strategies for interval learning were surveyed by James J. Canelos, Barbara A. Murphy, Ann K. Blombach and William C. Heck, in research categorised as Comparisons between selected strategies .58 A lot of research has been done in the field of Computer-assisted Aural Training (CAT) since the late 1960s. The work done by Wolfgang E. Kuhn and Raynold E. Allvin as well as by Fred T. Hofstetter are amongst the earliest approaches to CAT, with the research by Russell A. Kozerski as one of the more recent approaches to this fast developing field.59 Hilda Bester explored the incorporation of Twentieth-century Music to Aural Training in her thesis. 55 Bernita Douglas, Riglyne vir gelntegreerde gehooropleiding by k1avieronderrig. thesis, University of Stellenbosch 1990. 56 Nancy Marie Bodenstein, "The Teaching of Selected Musical Concepts in the College Music Survey Course Utilizing the Taped Guided Listening Technique" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 36/3 (September 1975) p. 1362-A. James C. Carlsen, "Programed Learning in Melodic Dictation" in Journal of Research in Music Education, 12/2 (1964) pp. 139-148. 57 Gary Potter, "Identifying Successful Dictation Strategies" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 4/1 (Spring 1990) pp. 63-71. 58 James J. Canelos, Barbara A. Murphy, Ann K. Blombach, and William C. Heck, "Evaluation of Three Types of Instructional Strategy for Learner Acquisition of Intervals" in Journal of Research in Music Education, 28/4 (1980) pp. 243-249. 59 Wolfgang E. Kuhn and Raynold E. Allvin, "Computer-Assisted Teaching: A New Approach to Research in Music" in Journal of Research in Music Education, 15/4 (1967) pp. 305-315. Fred T. Hofstetter, "Computer-Based Aural Training: The Guido System" in Journal of Computer-Based Instruction, 7/3 (February 1981) pp. 84-92. Russell A. Kozerski, Personal Computer Microworlds for Music Composition and Education. Doctoral dissertation, University of California, San Diego 1988. 21 Unpublished Master's Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za In a cognitive-based investigation, Elizabeth West Marvin generalised the contour theories of Robert Morris within a non-tonal musical context.60 Research in Aural analysis is still an unexplored field. Although Robert Gauldin referred to this aspect of auditive learning, his contribution merely lay in a "microscopic" application of this principle. Form analysis still needs to be investigated with emphasis placed on the "whole" instead of musical phrases (thus "macroscopic"). Gary Potter has explored this area in an aural analysis project, and Emily Ruth Brink compiled a taxonomy of Aural tasks based on the principle of aurally analysing "whole" compositions.61 A few investigations such as Janet Claire Garton's "The Efficacy of Computer-Based and Tape-Recorded Assistance in Second-Semester Freshman Ear Training Instruction" have concentrated on Comparing CAT and traditional teaching approaches.62 Research has also been conducted on the Effects on, and/or the efficiency of certain applied teaching principles in Aural Training and other music disciplines. The studies by Denise Kath Gamble, and Christoph Hempel and Andreas Lehmann are examples of research included in this category. 63 The above outline and list of studies compiled in Appendix A provide definite proof for the conclusion that Aural Training has gained in importance given the increasing amount of research conducted since 1980. Several teaching strategies and comparisons between them have been examined, and a great deal of research has also been conducted in the field of progranuned Aural Training. There are, however, still several neglected areas that need to be explored. Aural Training with children is one of the most neglected research topics. Applications of music psychological principles to Aural Training and the culmination of these principles in Aural Analysis also need more attention. *** 60 Hilda Bester, Gehooropleiding in die Twintigste eeu met spesiale verwysing na Nuwe Musiek. Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Stellenbosch 1983. Elizabeth West Marvin, A Generalized Theory of Musical Contour: Its Application to Melodic and Rhythmic Analysis of Non-Tonal Music and its Perceptual and Pedagogical Implications. Doctoral dissertation, University of Rochester 1988. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1988. 61 Robert Gauldin, "Teaching Music Theory: The Conservatory" in Journal of Music Theory, 18/1 (Spring 1974) pp.75-90. Gary Potter, "Putting Skills to Work: An Aural Analysis Project" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 2/1 (Spring 1988) pp. 69-84. 62 Janet Claire Garton "The Efficacy of Computer-Based and Tape-Recorded Assistance in Second-Semester Freshman Ear Training Instruction" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 42/11 (May 1982) pp. 4756-A _ 4757-A. 63 Denise Kath Gamble, "A Study of the Effects of Two Types of Tonal Pattern Instruction on the Audiation and Performance Skills of First-Year Clarinet Students" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 50/4 (October 1989) pp. 893-A - 894-A. Christoph Hempel and Andreas Lehmann: TELG - Testreihe zur Ermittlung von Lernfortschritten in der GehorbiIdung. Pre-publication copy of the authors' contribution to a panel discussion during the KlangAnKonGrej3 held at the University of Osnabrock in 1991. 22 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za CHAPTER TWO Theoretical overview of the didactics of Aural Training INTRODUCTION It is a well-known fact that whenever music is heard the opportunity Training is a "collective" subject addressed either consciously levels of auditive perception to train the ear exists. To that extent Aural or unconsciously in every music lesson. These two can be compared with Siegfried Palm's discrimination between "Harer" (hearer), and "Horcher" (listener).1 Two forms of instruction can thus be distinguished. extent always been included in musical training, The first "spontaneous" form of Aural Training because auditive abilities and the thinking processes hearing form the core of all music instruction and listening. In this "unpremeditated" given to the development "incidental hearing"2. of aural abilities through special exercises. Hearing is circumstantially has to some linked to form no attention is consciously Walter Baer referred to this phenomenon stimulated by the music environment, as e.g. at the music lesson or through concert attendance. The nature of the second form of formal, planned Aural Training embodied in distinctive aural instruction methods is reflected in the word "Horcher" (listener), which can also be translated as "eavesdropper". listens to a conversation, An eavesdropper secretly i.e. he is aurally "spying". A more alert phase of auditive perception that includes under- standing and evaluation is suggested. 3 Whereas the first form of Aural Training is as old as music itself, the second form has only existed for the last 150 years. Hubert Haas and Erhard Karkoschka described the different historical phases of Aural Training and referred to the fact that the demands made on the ear have become more and more differentiated.4 of differentiation According to them the levels is a historical process manifesting itself in the written fixation of music by. means of letters, names, tabulators, notes and numbers as well as other forms of sound representation, The authors continued that the first real pedagogical e.g. the Guidonian hand and tonic-doh. endeavour to consciously train the ear was found in Der Voll- kommene Kapellmeister (1735) by Johann Mattheson. Mattheson covered the areas of melodic dictation, improvisa- tion and transpositional dictation in all clefs, keys and time signatures. By comparison, in earlier works by Sebastian 1 Siegfried Palm, "Nachdenkliehes mente aus der Musikpadagogik, 61. 2 Walter Baer, "Systematische Horschulung - wie und wozu?" in Josef Mayr-Kem (Ed.), Materialien und Dokumente aus der Musikpadagogik, Band 6: Musikalisehe Grundsehulung an Ausbildungsstatten fiir Musikberufe - Dokumentation iiber die D-A-CH-Tagung 1976. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1977 pp. 11-14. 3 Alphons Silbermann, "Horen - Horchen - Verstehen" in Klaus Obermayer (Ed.), Materialien und Dokumente aus der Musikpadagogik, Band 15: Horen - Horehen - Yerstehen. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1987 p. 8. 4 Hubert Haas and Erhard Karkoscka, neue musik horen - Eine Horerziehung mit neuer Musik in Theorie und Praxis. Rohrdorf: Rohrdorf, 1981 pp. 6-7. beim Horen von Musik" in Klaus Obermayer (Ed.), Materialien und DokuBand 15: Horen - Horehen - Yerstehen. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1987 p. 23 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Virdung (Musica getuscht, 1511), Michael Praetorius (Syntagma musicum, n.d., probably after 1613), as well as later pedagogical works by Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (Versuch uber die wahre An das Clavier zu spieten, 1787), Johann Joachim Quantz (Versuch einer Anweisung, die FLOtetraversiere zu spielen, 1752) and Leopold Mozart (Versuch einer grundlichen Violin-Schule, 1756), no suggestions were made concerning the conscious training of the ear. It can, however, be argued that the use of the St. John hymn by Guido of Arezzo in the ninth and tenth centuries A.D. was the first pedagogical approach to sight singing. The technique to "solmisize" whole melodies was developed at the latest by the thirteenth century.5 Though this is not clearly stated, Haas and Karkoschka seem to see the syllables used by Guido as a forerunner of pedagogical approaches to Aural Training. Although certain Aural Training methods were used earlier, the idea and terminology of a consciously developed aural education was born during the nineteenth century. Reasons for the initiation of conscious Aural Training can be found in the fact that the appreciation of music from this period demanded better schooling in listening as well as in the social changes of the nineteenth century. The liberation of the middle class, the call for enlightenment and humanitarianism as well as the availability of more free time resulted in a readiness and demand for general education.6 Pioneering work was done in 1810 by Michael Traugott Pfeiffer and Hans Georg Nageli, based on ideas by Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, Albert Lavignac, who started Aural Training instruction in 1871 at the Paris Conservatory of Music, and Hugo Riemann who wrote the Katechismus des Musikdiktats (1889). The following quotation from Pierre Galin is an example of the growing awareness of the necessity of Aural Training in the nineteenth century: "11est singulier que l'on ait toujours commence ce genre d'enseignement par parler aux yeux de 1'eleve, au lieu de parler plutat Ii ses oreilles; il semble, en effet, qu' on devrait lui enseigner Ie langage oral de la musique avant de lui en enseigner Ie langage ecrit. Par exemple, on ne s'avise pas d'apprendre Ii parler Ii un enfant par Ie moyen de la lecture, et de lui mettre un livre sous les yeux pour I' instruire a prononcer des paroles; c' est neanmoins ce que l' on fait ici: on fait chanter I' eleve sur Ie livre, on Ie fait lire avant qui' il sache soltier en chantant ou qu'il sache parler. "7 Although the origin of Aural Training has been discussed in the previous paragraphs, it is not the aim of this research endeavour to give a detailed history of Aural Training. The historical roots of a few methods are traced and shortly introduced later in this chapter. The purpose of Chapter Two is to present a complete picture of "intentional" Training in the twentieth century, based on information found in published and unpublished 5 6 7 Martin Ruhnke, "Solmisation" in Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart, Aural literature as well as in 12 p. 844. This fact is also supported by Joseph Muller-B1attau. Aural Training as a subject/part of a subject started at the beginning of the Nineteenth Century when general music education became important to general public. Before that, Aural Training was incorporated to some extent in school and church education. Joseph Muller-B1attau, "GehOrbildung" in Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 4 p. 1533. Pierre Galin, Exposition d'une Nouvelle methode. Paris: Rey and Gravier, 1818. "It seems strange that musical instruction has always been begun through the eye of the pupil, instead of through his ear. It is surely evident that we should teach the oral language of music before the written language. For instance, we should not recommend teaching a child to speak by means of reading, or place a book before him to show him how to pronounce words. Yet this is what is done in music teaching: the child is required to perform from written notes; he is made to read before he knows how to sol-fa, that is, before he can speak." (English translation by Bernarr Rainbow: Pierre Galin, Rationale for a New Way of Teaching Music. C1arabricken, Ireland: Boethius Press, 1983 pp. 54 and 55.) 24 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za research conducted on the theme of Aural Training. This chapter should thus be viewed as 'a review of literature in order to establish a theoretical basis for the practical questionnaire-based outline of Aural Training presented in Chapter Three: The main divisions of this chapter are: 1. The rationale behind the teaching of Aural Training Teaching ideologies The contents and target group of Aural Training Methodological approaches. 2. 3. 4. 1. THE RATIONALE BEHIND THE TEACHING OF AURAL TRAINING Reasons for the teaching of Aural Training referring to the significance and the objectives of this subject are discussed under this he.ading. Although these two aspects are closely intertwined in the teaching situation, exercising direct control over each other, they are separated here for the purposes of discussion only. In section 1.1, on the significance of Aural Training, two different approaches explaining the importance of this subject are introduced, . whereas a hierarchy of Aural Training objectives is presented in section 1.2. Most of the material discussed in these sections was found in sources other than Aural Training examination literature. An of various Aural Training books revealed that the majority of the authors did not refer at all, or very vaguely, to the rationale behind this subject. Gary Karpinsky made the same observation when investigating three text books: "Curiously, the authors never discuss the purposes of ear-training study. At best, they tell the student of the difficulties he may encounter and then describe the manner in which Musicianship will present the subject. "8 Several books only consist of an acknowledgement section and exercises.9 Prefaces and introductions mainly concen- trate on "how to use this book", often with vague references to the importance and/or goals. 10 Bernhard Sekles, for example, wrote in 1901 that the aim of Aural Training classes is to develop the ear, rhythmical feeling and music:al memory.11 About eight decades later Heinz-Christian Schaper summarised a similar point no less vaguely in his Gehorbildung compact, saying that his book is a compilation of ideas and materials for a systematically developed general education, with the aim of broadening and deepening the connection of rudimentary 8 9 10 11 Gary S. Karpinsky, "Ear Training and Integrated Theory Pedagogy, 3/1 (Spring 1989) p. 133. principles with musical Aural Skills: Three Recent Texts" in Journal of Music E.g. Marie Egmond, 600 Dietees. Amsterdam: Broekmans and Van Poppel, [n.d.]. This is especially true of books on programmed aural instruction (workbook with cassettes). The following two cburses are only a sample of this phenomenon: Robert W.Sherman and Morris Knight, Student Workbook for Aural Comprehension in Music, Vois. 1 and 2. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1972. Wolfgang Breuer, GehOrbiidung - Fur Unterrieht und Selbststudium. Stuttgart: LB. Metzler, 1991. Bernhard Sekles, Musikdiktat - Ubungsstoff in dreissig Absehnitten. 25 Mainz: Schott, 1901 p. 1. Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za experiences.12 Just as dubious is Leo Horacek and Gerald Lefkoff's "improvement of hearing and notational skills" .13 Some authors provided the student with aims such as: "To recall exactly the rhythm of-a musical phrase, and to be able to convey it in writing, using conventional musical symbols. "14 The reason for mastering this activity, however, is not mentioned. Maurice Lieberman maintained that the student's progress depends on skilful guidance, agement and a reasonably characteristics, good book. Although he tried to approach the parameters encour- of music by explaining their he did not provide the student with information on the significance and goals of Aural Training.1S Apart from the fact that references made to the objectives of Aural Training are often vague, these also tend to zoom in on only one or two aspects of the objectives. It is then not surprising that Richard DeLone complained in the introductory section of his boo~ that many students and instructors of sight singing "are unclear about the need for and the goals of sight singing courses." As a result of this, "a valuable tool for developing aural acuity is often misused or overlooked entirely. "16 This fact was "accidently" proven at the New England Conservatory in the United States of America. A range of test items used to evaluate a group of freshman sight singing students was unintentionally used to evaluate their achievement two years later. A comparison of the test results revealed that students failed to show significant improvement in sight singing skills. 17 Two possible conclusions can be drawn from these observations. Firstly, it could be that the importance and objectives of Aural Training are so commonly known that the authors did not comment on them. Secondly, a more likely conclusion could be that the rationale of Aural Training has not been thoroughly thought through by most authors and teachers in this field. It seems as if quite a number of authors in their realization of the need for instruction material take time to organise for example dictation exercises according to different levels of difficulty, without giving thought to the philosophy behind this activity. This situation was summarised by Paul Loeb van Zuilenburg who stated that tradition and habit seem to dictate many Aural Training methods, some of which might be inefficient, superfluous or inadequate. IS 12 Heinz-Christian 5. 13 14 IS 16 17 18 Schaper, GehOrbildung compact - Teil I: Grundlagen Leo Horacek and Gerald Lefkoff, Programmed World, 1970. Michael IIIman, Systematic Aural Training. Maurice Lieberman, Ear Training Richard R. DeLone, 1981 p. 1. Literature Ear Training Teacher's Mainz: Schott, 1989 p. . Vols. 1 - 4. New York: Harcourt, book. London: Longman, Brace and 1974 p. 5. and Sight Singing. New York: W.W. Norton, 1959. and Materials for Sightsinging. Lyle Davidson and Larry Scripp, "Part One: A Developmental Theory Pedagogy, 2/1 (Spring 1988) p. 10. Paul Loeb van Zuilenburg, und Ubungen. New York: Holt, Rinehart View of Sightsinging" "Aspects of Aural Training" in Music in Education, 26 and Winston, in Journal 39/371 (1975) p. 23. of Music Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 1.1 The significance of Aural Training The most common approach to define the importance of Aural Training embodies the examination of its influence on other subjects as a way of determining its efficiency. In several research projects it has been pointed out that Aural Training has had a positive effect on students' achievements in other subjects. In a study where the effect of sight singing on sight reading was investigated, John Michael Bozone found that sight singing was a valuable aid in the improvement of piano sight reading skills.19 Michael Paul Dunlap investigated "whether beginning elementary instrumental students who engaged in singing and solmization as part of their instrumental class activities developed greater aural, performance and music reading skills than instrumental students who did not receive this training." He concluded that vocal accuracy was significantly related to melodic ear-to-hand coordination, melodic aural visual discrimination, instrumental performance skills and musIcal aptitude.20 Denise Kath Gamble found that, when compared to students who did not receive "tonal pattern instruction n, beginner clarinet students who learned sequential skills based upon a music learning theory with a content of arpeggio patterns achieved superior skills in tonal audiation and performance of notated music)1 Tonal pattern instruction included listening, singing, recognizing, playing and reading patterns in major and minor tonalities.22 William H. Trusheim interviewed twenty-five top orchestral brass players on topics such as Training and Experience, Mentors, Warm-up, Mental Rehearsal, etc. He discovered that aural or auditory imagery was a prime ingredient for the great majority of subjects.23 Although not statistically, Rochelle Mann witnessed the influence of aural development on other music subjects. According to her, during Music History classes students were able to sing examples of early music of which no recordings were available. More accurate instrumental readers with better intonation could be found in her music department because of the KodaIy method used there.24 Theo Hug referred to the fact that a string instrument player has only his ears to check his intonation, and that it is therefore important to start with Aural Training as soon as 19 John Michael Bozone, "The Use of Sight Singing as a Prestudy Aid for the Improvement of the Sight-Reading Skills of Second-Semester Class Piano Students" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 47/7 (January 1987) p.2358-A. 20 Michael Paul Dunlap, "The Effects of Singing and Solmization Training on the Musical Achievement of Beginning Fifth-Grade Instrumental Students" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 51/2 (August 1990) pp. 444A - 445-A. 21 The neologism audiation was created by Edwin Gordon. Audiation takes place when one hears and comprehends music silently, that is, when the sound is not physically present. Edwin E. Gordon, Learning Sequences in Music - Skill, Content, and Patterns. Chicago: G.I.A., 1988 p. 7. 22 Denise Kath Gamble, "A Study of the Effects of Two Types of Tonal Pattern Instruction on the Audiational and Performance Skills of First-Year Clarinet Students" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 50/4 (October 1989) p. 894-A. 23 24 William H. Trusheim, "Mental Imagery and Musical Performance: An Inquiry into Imagery Use by Eminent Orchestral Brass Players in the United States" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 49/4 (October) 1988 p. 655-A. Rochelle Mann, "Why should Elementary Students have All the Fun?" in Music Educators Journal, (September 1989) p. 42. 27 76 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za possible.2S Both Hug and Helmut Zehetmair pointed out that Aural Training is a requirement and supplement for instrumental teaching.26 For Samuel Adler, Aural Training is the way to musical literacy in that it prepares the student for the conditions that exist in the profession.27 Brian Hodel interviewed a number of performers, composers, instrumental instructors and Aural Training teachers on the "usefulness" of Aural Training. Some of their responses were: '" It is important for general musicianship, just as courses in drawing are important to the painter or sculptor' (Heskel Brisman, composer and music editor). 'It is nonsensical to even think of separating ear training from mastery of the instrument' (Eliot Fisk, concert guitarist). 'The knowledge of phrasing gained through ear training makes the difference between a robot and a good interpreter' (Dr. Ermelinda A. P. de Souza Barros, professor of musical perception, University of Rio de Janeiro). Let me add to these rather pointed endorsements a more analytical one by Ralph Kirkpatrick: 'For me the working out of a musical interpretation or the solving of a technical problem is inseparable from the necessary "long-life process of training the ear. No ear is so dull that it cannot be trained; no ear is so sensitive that it cannot be taught or teach itself to hear more; no emotional capacities or sensory perceptions are so complete that they cannot be further developed. ' "28 Finally, a few quotations of students' opinions on the worth of Aural Training: "'During my winter vacation I got together with my high school teacher and he immediately noticed that my rhythm is much better. He wanted to know what they were teaching me at the conservatory. I told him I thought that my solfege course was really helping me with intonation and rhythm on my instrument' - a first- year solfege student (performing major). ' ... I began to see what my hand could show. It wasn't simply repeating a pattern meaningless[ly] but it was [expressing] something. A firm downbeat, a rebound that was internalized, a lightness, a heaviness showing my hand .. .I found new ways to cope with problems with ensemble in chamber music' - a secondyear solfege student (performance major). 'Through sightsinging I have learned to hear music with my inner ear - I can now write music without having to play it on the piano' - a second-year student (composition major). "29 A more comprehensive approach explaining the need for Aural Training, however, not only tries to see its relevance in its application to other subjects, but concentrates on the mental development of the musician. Development in cognitive musical thinking will inevitably influence achievement in other subjects. According to this approach, the intrinsic value of Aural Training lies in the fact that it forms the source of all music education. Gisela Distler-Brendel is only o~e of several German educators who sees Aural Training as the central goal of Music 2S 26 27 28 29 Theo Hug, "Unser Geh6r und Intonationsprobleme des Streichers" in Josef Mayr-Kern (Ed.), Materialien und Dokumente aus der Musikpiidagogik, Band 6: MusikaIische Grundschulung an Ausbildungstiitten fiir Musikberufe - Dokumentation tiber die D-A-CH-Tagung 1976. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1978 p. 90. Helmut Zehetmair, "Spezielle Aufgaben einer GehOrbildung im Violinunterricht" in Josef Mayr-Kern (Ed.), Materialien und Dokumente aus der Musikpiidagogik, Band 6: Musikalische Grundschulung an Ausbildungstiitten fiir Musikberufe - Dokumentation tiber die D-A-CH-Tagung 1976. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1978 p. 91. Samuel Adler, Sight Singing. New York: W.W. Norton, 1979. Brian Hodel, "Ear Training for Guitarists" in Guitar Review, 68 (Winter 1987) p. 3. Larry Scripp and Lyle Davidson, "Part Two: Framing the Dimensions of Sightsinging: Teaching toward Musical Development" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 2/1 (Spring 1988) p. 25. 28 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Education, because it enables the student to perceive and think in the characteristic categories of music.30 Arpad Darazs and Jay Stephen described the value of Aural Training as follows: "By awakening the ear and using it as the central tool for teaching and experiencing music we can prepare the way for instrumental training as well as for intelligent and more enjoyable music listening. "31 Aural Training musical building concentration can provide the student with the means to become a musically blocks and structures. According to Roland Mackamul, literate person who comprehends the student can learn to develop his abilities and musical memory. He can develop the ability to unify (a) mental representations of sound, (b) the score and (c) instrumental grip "simulations" in a unity called inner hearing. Aural Training gives the student the ability to aurally understand musical relationships and their building blocks in such a way that he can reproduce what was heard on an instrument, and it enables the student to combine a pure emotional experience with subject- related criteria.32 Hermann Sprenger also stressed the fact that all education involves the development of thinking processes. According to him, Aural Training serves to develop concentration abilities. It trains the ability to consciously penetrate musical processes and to be sensitive to the qualitative effect, thus implying the development of affective abilities. He warned against the danger of the perpetual testing of aural abilities as opposed to the development of these. The goal of Aural Training should not simply be the recognition of musical elements, but the experience of these in a qualitative way of learning. Sprenger pointed out that Aural Training is not only a subject for specialists that should also have its place in the music curriculum. Rather, it is a basic and overlapping subject that could fertilise all musical activities.33 1.2 The objectives of Aural Training "Everyone can hear melodies and enjoy them. But the musician must know what he is hearing. "34 In this quotation of Leo Kraft, the core of what Music Education and Aural Training desires to achieve, is addressed. "Indepth understanding", "Verstehendes des GehOrten" (the conscious 30 Horen" (comprehensive mental penetration hearing), of what was heard), "das bewuJ3te gedankliche "insight into, and total comprehension Arpad Darazs and Jay Stephen, Sight and Sound - Visual aid to melody York: Boosey and Hawkes, 1965 p. 5. 32 Roland Mackamul, Lehrbuch der Gehiirbildung, Band I. Kassel: Barenreiter, Hermann Sprenger, Methodik der Gehiirbildung. Unpublished manuscript, Leo Kraft, A New Approach W. W. Norton, 1967 p. 3. to Ear Training 34 of Gisela Distler-Brendel "Befahigung zum musikalischen Horen als zentrales Lernziel des Musikunterrichts" in Bernhard Dopheide (Ed.), Hiirerziehung. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1977 p. 225. Another example of an author with the same outlook: Heinz Kratochwil, "Horerziehung in der Ausbildung zum Musikpadagogen" Josef Mayr-Kern (Ed.),Materialien und Dokumente aus der Musikpadagogik, Band 6: Musikalische Grundschulung an Ausbildungstatten ffir Musikberufe - Dokumentation fiber die D-A-CH-Tagung 1976. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1978 p. 19. • 31 33 Durchdringen - A Programed 29 Course and harmony. Oceanside, New 1969 p. 8. [n.d.] pp. 3-4. to Melodic Dictation. New York: Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za music" are all expressions that appear in the majority of books on Aural Training and Music Education.35 The meaning of these expressions was summarised by Charles Leonhard and Robert House, who presented a definition of what they called "musical understanding": "Musical understanding is defined as the ability to bring accumulated musical learning to bear on the solution of musical problems. It involves the conscious use of information, skills, appreciation, and musical concepts in a cognitive framework when one is involved in such musical endeavors as listening, performing, composition, improvisation, and music reading. The principal ingredient of musical understanding is the ability to apply consciously one's knowledge of and sensitivity to embodied musical meaning, musical structure, and musical style to all types of musical experience. It seems evident that the development of musical understanding, along with the development of musical appreciation, represents a major cornerstone of any serious program of music education. Musical understanding should not be considered as unique to higher levels of musical accomplishment. can and indeed should come into play at every level of music education. "36 Three main aspects of comprehension conscious use of information, be incorporated were addressed namely problem-solving, the into all levels of music education. This implies that there is more than one level of understanding, a who defined four "cumulative" levels of conscious listening: Perception of sensorial impulses such as different pitches, duration, timbre, texture, etc. "Physiognomical", emotional-associative listening. Structural listening, hearing of musical forms in which both anticipational and reflective listening are incorporated. Evaluative listening in which all the previous aspects of listening culminate.37 (d) The presence objectives. and House, skills ,etc. and the application of knowledge. According to them, these aspects should fact that was confirmed by Gisela Distler-Brendel (a) (b) (c) by Leonhard It of different levels of comprehensive A complete hierarchical listening implies that there is, or should be, a hierarchy structure of objectives primarily designed for Aural Training purposes of could, however, not be located. An attempt is therefore made in this research endeavour to organise the objectives of Aural Training in such a hierarchy, starting with the perception of simple sensorial impulses and ending with the "ideal" listener. In the following discussions emphasis is placed on the long-term goals of Aural Training, because these goals are often vaguely described in Aural Training literature, or are non-existent. On the contrary, short-term goals and aims such as "to be able to sing, dictate, clap, etc. the heard musical phrase" appear abundantly in all Aural Training work books. In section 1.2.1 the pre-eminent 35 rudimentary long-term goal of Aural Training is described, followed by The following three books are just a very small sample of the vast majority of books and articles which refer to this general goal: Emily Ruth Brink, A Cognitive Approach to the Teaching of Aural Skills viewed as Applied Music Theory. Doctoral dissertation, Northwestern Universtity, Evanston, Illinois 1980. University Microfilms International, 1980 p. 63. Paul Loeb van Zuilenburg, Gehoortoetse en Gehooropleiding - 'n Inleiding. Stellenbosch: Cabo, [n.d.] p. 1. Dietrich Stoverock, GehOrbiidung - Geschichte und Methode. Wilhelmshaven: Heinrichshofen's Verlag, 1983 p.5. 36 37 Charles Leonhard and Robert W. House, McGraw-Hill, 1972 pp. 133-134. Foundations and Principles of Music Education. New York: Gisela Distler-Brendel "Befahigung zum musikalischen Horen als zentrales Lernziel des Musikunterrichts" Bernhard Dopheide (Ed.), Horerziehung. Darmstadt; Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1977 p. 229. 30 in Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za sections 1.2.2 and 1.2.3 (the primary and secondary long-term goals of Aural Training), with a fourth closing section 1.2.4 covering the hierarchy of these long-term goals. 1.2.1 The pre-eminent rudimentary long-term goal All the objectives of Aural Training are built on the simplest form of auditive perception of sensorial impulses reflecting itself in terms such as high/low, long/short, soft/loud, slow/fast. Helmut Rosing added to this that the dayby-day perception of the general a~oustical environment should be sharpened.38 If students fail to discriminate between the general characteristics of sound, it is impossible for them to differentiate on a more detailed level in subject-related terminology. Exact pinpointing of pitches in letter names and/or solfa, or duration in note values such as half notes and whole notes is impossible. The achievement of this rudimentary goal of sensorial perception provides the basic requirement for the process of becoming a knowledgeable listener. Although this goal is the prerequisite of Aural Training, it is a goal that has its place in all levels of Aural Training. Even on a tertiary level the achievement of this goal can be used as a pre-stage to problem-solving in complex musical situations. Hubert Haas, who taught Aural Training at a tertiary level, provided the following example: when a student has to reproduce a row of six or seven tones by singing, it often happens that the student stops when he . makes a mistake. The discrepancy between the sound that he reproduces and the sound image in his memory is reflected in the sensation that something is wrong. If he really could not remember it, there would have been no discrepancy. This problem can be solved by starting to ask the most rudimentary question of all: was the tone reproduced wrongly too high or too low?39 1.2.2 The primary long-term goal In the determination of the end goal of Aural Training the point of departure in this discussion will be the "ideal listener". Striving to become an ideal listener is in most cases utopian. There is, however, evidence of individuals with superior auditive abilities such as the "photographic ear". Karl Macek, for example, taught a young man of about fifteen or sixteen years of age the piano for a short period. During that time they concentrated on basic theory and keyboard harmony in order to enhance his aural skills. Two years later this former pupil, called Eric, contacted Macek again and played for him. His playing then was described as "amazing", as a "minor musical miracle." The crux of the matter is that Eric had developed certain skills over a period of years. Although he must have had a superior musical talent, his skills had to be developed through instruction and practice. Excerpts from a letter written to Macek describes Eric's auditive abilities: "I have a sort of 'photographic ear'. I not only hear sounds, but I can visualize them. ... I know every single note on every one of my Tatum records. It is there in the finest detail as though on a photograph. I can point with a mental pointer to any note, look at it in still motion and examine it. It's like having a movie projector where you can stop the film and study the scene to your heart's content before moving on. 38 Helmut Rosing, "Gedanken zum 'musikalischen Horen'" in Die Musikforschung, 27/2 (1974) p. 216. 39 Hubert Haas, Unterrichtsmethoden im Lernbereich Musikhoren. Unpublished article, [n.d.] p. 3. 31 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za ... In my mind I don't run through the film from the beginning to get to a particular scene. I yank the music right out of my mental files and start at the beginning of the place I want to start ... The records in my collection are so imprinted and photographed in my mind that I don't really need a record player to hear them. If I want, I can hear them in complete detail from start to finish .... Now, when I hear a new recording, I see the notes as well as hear them. I can feel myself playing and somehow, my mind works fast enough so that I can watch my fmgers playing as I listen to the record. "40 Eric's explanation of his photographic him, the highest level of listening. ear can be compared with Adorno's expert listener, representing This typ~ of listener consciously understands confronted with, for example, the second movement of Webem's everything according to that he hears. When String Trio Gp. 20 for the first time, he is able to recognise and name the different fonnal sections. While listening. to complex music he is able to hear the succession of events (the past, present and future impressions) in such a way that a sense of cohesion crystallises out of this spontaneous hearing. Complex harmonies and polyphony are also consciously perceived. Adorno suggested that this "fully adequate" musical behaviour could also be called structurallistening.41 Gustav Giildenstein's ideal musician hears a complex not-too-Iong work for various instruments several times. He is afterwards capable of mentally imagining the work with all its details in such a way that strongly matches a hallucination. This "image" is fmally precisely analysed in order to be able to write down the score of what was heard without mistakes. mentally with articulation, The ideal musician is also able to read an unknown score and hear the complete perfonnance respect to all characteristics such as relative and absolute pitch, rhythm, dynamics, agogics, phrasing and timbre.42 The ideal listener of Erwin Ratz likewise perceives every musical detail consciously and takes nothing for granted. Reasons for certain appearances are sought in order to develop beyond the instinctive recognition level. The relationship between detail and the whole is understood. 43 Giildenstein, however, claimed that Aural Training will never be able to meet the above requirements. reearcher agrees with this statement, a few auditive characteristics can, however, be derived from the above descriptions. Although the that a mediocre musician should strive to develop The primary long-tenn goal of Aural Training thus should be to develop the following auditive characteristics: The average musician will not only be able to function on a struCtural listening level (recognizing broad, overview, formal characteristics of a musical work), but will also be able to function on a perceptual listening level (recognizing details such as building blocks). He will have the ability of "two-way" mental imagination (sound to 40 Karl Macek, "The Photographic 41 Theodor W. Adorno, Einleitung 42 Gustav Giildenstein, 43 Ear" in The Piano Quarterly, in die Musiksoziologie. GehOrbiidung Erwin Ratz, Einfiihrung fUr Musiker: in die musikalische 35/137 (1987) pp. 46-48. Frankfurt/Main: Ein Lehrbuch. Formenlehre. 32 Suhrkamp, 1968 pp. 15-16. Basel: Schwabe, 1971 p. 13. Vienna, Universal Edition, 1973 p. 8. Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za symbol, symbol to sound), and will be able to act passively and actively on what was heard.44 The three aspects of musical understanding (problem-solving, conscious use of musical concepts and application) mentioned earlier, are thus included in the long-term goal of Aural Training. Having achieved this goal, the conductor will be able to link his score to an inner mental representation. The singer will be able to learn his part without hammering it out on the piano, and the instrumentalist will be able to present more than pure technical playing. It is not the goal of Aural Training to enable students to fully perceive a work at first sight or hearing. Such an approach would be unrealistic. Aural Training can, however, educate musicians to learn and reproduce the musical works that they are studying in a conscious way. What is meant is not only the ability to connect individual tones with mental pitch and rhythm representation, but also the recognition of thematic and harmonic details and relationships. It also implies the ability to connect sound images with their definitions.45 Friedmann's good listener "goes beyond the mechanics of accurate dictation or precisely pitched singing; it enables the listener to perform acts of at least rudimentary analysis without consulting the score. "46 In accordance with the earlier mentioned different levels of understanding, long-term goal can be distinguished, different levels of the achievement of this with the highest level that of the ideal listener. Factors that have an influence on the different levels of achievement are: • • • Duration of the material that was heard Number of hearings Familiarity with the musical syntax (style period). The longer the heard musical examples are, the less the number of hearings necessary to complete the task at hand, and the more complex the musical syntax is, the higher the level of achievement is. 1.2.3 The secondary long-tenn goals With the two "pole" objectives of Aural TraiIiing established (to perceive simple sound impulses and to develop structural evaluative listening), the question arises as to how a student can develop from one pole to the other. In order to answer this question, secondary goals should be added between the two poles in order to create a continuum of goals based on the foundation of the listening process which takes place in the mental realm. 44 45 46 The terms passive and active were used by Paul Loeb van Zuilenburg to describe listening tasks (e.g. dictation, error detection) and performance tasks (e.g. sight singing, instrumental reproduction, improvisation, composition). Paul Loeb van Zuilenburg, "Aural Training and its Relation to the Teaching of Harmony and Counterpoint" in Ars Nova, 7/1 (1975) pp. 19-20. Roland Mackamul, 1983) p. 98. "Gehorbildung Michael L. Friedmann, p. xxiii. - wo und warm? (I)" in Schweizerische Musikzeitung, 123/2 (March/April Ear Training for Twentieth Century Music. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990 33 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Aural Training, development which is based on hearing and listening, is a communication between musical structures of the skill to recognise and understand these sound structures.47 Robert Olson described exercise as a co-ordination and the this mental of the ~ar and the mind on a musical subject. 48 This perspective of Aural Training has also been addressed by Steward MacPherson and Ernest Read, as well as by C. Foster Browne.49 Furthermore, it is clear from the Leonhard and House definition of musical understanding that comprehension is a mental activity. Because of this mental aspect of Aural Training, it is relevant to study the listening process briefly. It is only when the different variables of the listening process are known that secondary goals to develop the ear can be set up. Warren F. Prince compiled a paradigm in which he listed all possible variables of the listening process. attempted to draw a complete hypothetical picture of this process referring to aural perception processes, and early environmental and (c) perception of listening, (b) affective and associative and learning processes. These can be clearly seen: all the variables that deal directly with the hearer (e.g. personality, general attentiveness musical ability) are concentrated at the top. These variables are connected to the of the hearer which influences and intensifies his perception. middle of the paradigm. aural habits, influences in such a way that the relationship between the variables could be seen. In the paradigm three general variable types appear, namely (a) the characteristics perception, Prince Perception patterns appear in the A group of learning process variables, which in turn influences the perception variables, emerges at the end of the paradigm. An arrow in one direction indicates that this variable has an influence on other variables in the listening process but cannot be influenced by this/these variable(s). The connection of variables with arrows in both directions indicates that these variables have a mutual influence on each other. 50 The complexity of the listening process can clearly be seen in the paradigm. According to Prince, one facet of this intricacy is that change in one variable evokes change in other variables. A person with a "short" musical memory will not be able to recognise influenced by analytical for instance the formal characteristics of a piece of music. Memory abilities in order to perceive musical structures. is, however, An improved ability to extract smaller musical entities (e.g. major chords, ostinato figures) will lead to an improved memory, which will again lead to a 47 Walter Kolneder, "Visuelle und auditive Analyse" in Veroffentlichungen des Instituts fUr Neue Musik und Musikerziehung Darmstadt, Band 3: Der Wandel des musikalischen Horens. Berlin: Merseburger, 1962 p. 57. 48 49 so Robert G. Olson, Music Dictation: A Stereo-Taped Series. Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 1970 p. 2. Stewart MacPherson -and Ernest Read, Aural Culture based upon Musical Appreciation, Part I. London: Joseph Williams, 1953 p. 1. C. Foster Browne, The Sight and Sound of Music - A New and Easy Method of Learning to Read Music. London: The Cresset Press, 1969, p. 3. Warren F. Prince" A Paradigm for Research on Music Listening" in Journal 19 (1971) pp. 445-455. 34 of Research in Music Education, Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za better perception of formal aspects. 51 This will have an effect on the attentiveness of the student, which again will have an influence on other variables. Fig. 2.1 Prince: Paradigm for research on music listening MUSIC LISTENER Socia Ily-Ed ucationa Ily Derived Attitudes Toward Music Muscle Movement; Involuntary Changes in Viscera, Pulse, Breathing, etc. Moment by Moment Feeling. Tone Responses Perception of Patterns of Expressive Elements: Melody, Rhythm, Harmony, Orchestration, etc. Visual Images; Literary, Experiential Associations; Mood Judgments of Overall Nature About Form, Style, Quality, etc. Long Term Retrieval and Comparison 51 Werner Piitz indicated that structural listening implies a good concentration ability, a rapid processing of the received information and a good memory. These abilities can be practised through "partial" listening (parameter listening) and detail listening. Werner Piitz, "Zur Horerziehung in der musikalischen Berufsausbildung" in Musik und Bildung, 63/5 (May 1972) pp. 233-234. Prof. Hubert Haas explained in an interview with the researcher on the 5th of October 1988 that the process of chunking can expand the known seven plus-minus one units normally stored in the short-term memory. If units (e.g. pitches) can be organised into structures such as chords, and can be labelled with terms such as repetition and sequence, more information can be stored in the short-term memory. According to him, listening is the ability to describe what was heard in theoretical terminology. 35 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Changes in the variables of the listening process imply changes in musical behaviour, mainly possible through learning and instruction. i.e. aural behaviour. This is Against the background of the listening process, certain goals can be determined in order to improve or develop the musical ear. Goals that can be derived from Prince's paradigm are: • • • • • To develop To develop To develop To develop To develop blocks) attentiveness concentration musical memory the ability to associate sound with non-musical ideas the ability to perceive musical structures in a microscopic way (perception of building • To develop the ability to perceive musical structures in a macroscopic way (perception of formal characteristics) • To develop the ability to evaluate aural impressions (e.g. interpretative comparisons, self-critique). Wilhelm Lehr also followed this procedure of investigating the listening process in order to derive aural objectives from it. He referred to the work of Raoul Husson in which the spinal cord, mid-brain and cortex respectively responsible Listening for automatic dymogenetical reflex movements, affective nuances and associative does not only take place in the peripheral. sphere of the sense organs, intellectual images. but also in the emotional intellectual spheres. Lehr concluded that Aural Training should take place on the sensorial, are and affective and cognitive levels. He derived the following goals from the above information: • • • • • • To broaden the natural hearing abilities and adjustment of perception deficiencies To assimilate and transmit sound events accurately To develop the ability to store auditive impressions and accurate replies/responses/reproductions To develop the ability to evaluate perceptions and to solve specific aural assignments through analysis and synthesis of complexes To apply what was heard in a form of "creative" education Rapid perception and ordering of parameters.52 There is a remarkable similarity between the goals that can be derived from Prince's paradigm formulated by Lehr. A summary of these, an application of Bloom's taxonomy of educational and the goals objectives to Aural Training, as well as goals found in other sources, present the secondary long-tenn goals of Aural Training.53 These goals aim to develop: (a) (b) 53 Affective listening (attentiveness, willingness, concentration) (c) 52 Cognitive listening: (i) Microscopic structural listening (analysis, building bLocks, cliches) (ii) Macroscopic structural listening (perception of overview, synthesis) (iii) MusicaLmemory (assimilation, association) (iv) Inner hearing (v) Creation (vi) EvaLuation Psychomotor skiLls (practice-basedskills tosuppon other subjects) Wilhelm Lehr, "GehOrbildung, Gehortraining, 1986) p. 26. Horerziehung" in Neue Musikzeitung, 34/5 (October/November Bloom et al. determined three covert variables of learner's behaviour: the cognitive, psychomotor and affective. Richard Colwell and Thomas Regelski applied these principles to music education. Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives - The Classification of Education Goals, Handbooks I and n. New York: David McKay, 1956 and 1964. Richard Colwell: The Evaluation of Music Teaching and Learning. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: PrenticeHall, 1970 pp. 79-131. Thomas A. Regelski, Principles Hall, 1975 pp. 206-225. and Problems of Music Education. 36 Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice- Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za (a) Cognitive listening The domain of cognitive listening embodies all activities based on mental processes such as: knowing (of e.g. specifics, terminology, facts, trends and sequences, classifications and categories, methodology theories and structures) comprehension (translation, interpretation, extrapolation) application (application of known principles by, for example, demonstrating the correct use of a method) analysis (of elements, relationships and organizational principles) synthesis (production of a unique communication, e.g. improvisation, production of a plan or proposed set of operations, derivation of a set of abstract relations, creation) evaluation (judgments in terms of internal evidence and external criteria)54 An application of these cognitive principles to Aural Training appear in the following goals. It is important to note that Bloom's correlation taxonomy is only generally between the researcher's applied to the teaching of Aural Training. goals and the taxonomy is not presented. A detailed level-for-Ievel Listening is, according to Peter R. Webster and Keith Swanwick, also a creative task, in that heard elements are grouped together in order to create an understanding of what was heard.55 The researcher expanded Bloom's definition of synthesis by determining two levels of creation (synthesis). The first level is that of creating entities when listening to music, thus creating a personal, formal understanding of what was heard. This level complies with macroscopical second synthesis level, personal ideas in the form of original improvisation, structural listening. In the composition, and/or written/mental theoretical formal analysis, form the core. This level is discussed under the creation heading. (i) Microscopic structural listening The first phase of this goal strives to identify and understand all the elements of music as well as ways in which they can interact with one another. Gaining theoretical knowledge of, for example, different kinds of rhythms, basic types of pitch organization (modal, tonal, atonal, etc.), timbre, range and density is important in this phase.56 During the second phase, auditive perception of building blocks such as intervals, scales, chords, stereotype rhythms, cadences, ostinato figures, Zuilenburg epoch or composer-related referred to this phase as the familiarization orchestration characteristics should be developed. Loeb van of cliches and Murray Gould called it the perceptual level of thinking.57 Janet McLoud McGaughey provided a reason for achieving this goal: 54 Hannah as adapted by J. Cawood, F.B. Muller and J.F.A. Swartz, Grondbeginsels wood: National Educational Press, 1982. 55 Peter R. Webster, "Conceptual Bases for Creative Thinking in Music" in J. Craig Peery, Irene Weiss and Thomas Draper (Eds), Music and Child Development. New York: Springer, 1987 p. 162~ Keith Swanwick, Music, Mind, and Education. London: Routledge, 1988 pp. 82-83. 56 George Pratt and Michael Henson, "Aural Teaching in the First Year of Tertiary Education: Course" in British Journal of Music Education, 4/2 (1987) p. 119-123. 57 van die didaktiek. Good- An Outline for a Paul Loeb van Zuilenburg, Gehoortoetse en Gehooropleiding - 'n Inleiding. Stellenbosch: Cabo, [n.d.] p. 3. Murray J. Gould, Paths to Musical Thought. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979 p. 1. 37 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za "The aim with basic drills is to provide a vocabulary of response patterns which the student will come to use automatically in reacting to what he hears. "58 (ii) Macroscopic structural listening This goal implies the development relationships, of the auditive perception structures.59 and polyphonic The principles recognition of the different themes, modulations recognised, are incorporated of bigger formal constructions, of "grouping", motivic-thematic in which formal characteristics such as and sections of, for example, the Sonata form should be aurally in this goal. It forms the counterpart of the microscopic structural listening goal with the emphasis put on synthesis.60 (iii) Musical memory (assimilation, association) The abilities of assimilation, association, and short-term and long-term storage of musical information should be de- veloped. Volker Hoffmann pointed out that Aural Training does not provide training in the ability to hear, but rather training in the ability to contemplate a musical process that has already been stored. According to him, Aural Training is a way of memory training in which information saved earlier should be recalled.61 (iv) Inner hearing The development of inner hearing is a special form of musical memory which is sometimes referred to as the "hearing eye" and the "seeing ear', as "a sixth sense of auditory-visual kindredship. "62 It points to "the ability to scan a line or score and hear it with the mind's ear without actually sounding the music, and ... the ability to render vocally at sight music of a wide variety of styles, genres and levels of difficulty, rhythm, melody, structure, music into vocal/instrumental producing a good approximation of the pace, and style of a given passage. "63 Inner hearing thus implies the translation sounds which can be performed out loud by singing, or 'heard' of printed by the inner ear.64 Edwin Gordon labelled inner hearing with the term "audiation", determining seven types and six stages of this goal to 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 Janet McLoud McGaughey, Practical Ear Training. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1966 p. 2. Heinz Kratochwil, "Horerziehung in der Ausbildung von Musikpadagogen" in Josef Mayr-Kern (Ed.), Materialien und Dokumente aus der Musikpadagogik, Band 6: Musikalische Grundschulung an Ausbildungsstatten fUr Musikberufe - Dokumentation tiber die D-A-CH-Tagung 1976. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1977 pp. 19-22. Emily Ruth Brink, A Cognitive Approach to the Teaching of Aural Skills viewed as Applied Music Theory. Doctoral dissertation, Northwestern Universtity, Evanston, Illinois 1980. University Microfilms International, 1980 p. 99. . Volker Hoffmann, 307. "Horerziehung Bruce Benward, Sightsinging Richard P. DeLane, Literature p. 1. (Italics by DeLane.) oder auditive Wahmemungserziehung" Complete. in Musik und Bildung, 7/6 (1976) p. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm.C. Brown, 1973 p. vii. and Materials for Sightsinging. David Thorn Mason, "The Case for Moveable Proceedings of NAJE Research, 7 (1987) p. 95. 'Do'. 38 New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Solfege as a Practical Tool for Improvisors" 1981 in Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za be reached.6S (v) Creation According to Loeb van Zuilenburg a very high level of cognitive aural development is reached when a person is able to consciously create (compose, improvise) a musical work. The goal to create incorporates the utilization of all the cognitive activities described earlier. It thus is one of the goals of Aural Training to develop creative engagement with music.66 (vi) Evaluation It is an important goal of education that students learn how to draw relevant conclusions and make relevant judgments about their own performance/composition/analysis related to a judgment into consideration and of those of others. The student should learn to take all factors instead of basing his evaluation on subjective and egocentric factors.67 George Pratt and Michael Henson defined a few short-term goals regarding evaluation: • • • • (b) To explain the role of criticism and how it can be applied To identify factors which affect critical judgement To examine the problems peculiar to self-criticism To break down the process of criticism into single component parts which can then be used to refine techniques of self-assessment. 68 Affective listening (attentiveness, willingness, concentration) The affective domain consists of awareness, characterization willingness to perceive, responsiveness, estimation of values and the of a personal system of values. Thomas Regelski listed the following variables of affective thinking: "To respond intuitively, to interpret freely, to prefer, to enjoy, to characterize in terms of 'feeling', ate or organize 'subjectively', to choose on the basis of 'feel'. "69 to cre- . Referring to German school music, Heinz Meyer pointed to the fact that the domain of cognitive listening is mainly addressed in this field. According to him, the affective domain regarding attentiveness training the ear. He suggested that one of the goals should be the development should also be included in of attentiveness, where the goal is merely to make students aware of what is heard. Meyer criticised music education for seeing the development of attentiveness solely as a medium, a motivation factor to reach other goals. He referred to the taxonomy of Bloom et 6S 66 67 68 69 Edwin E. Gordon, Learning 10-18. Sequences in Music - Skill, Content, and Patterns. Chicago: G.I.A., 1988 pp. Karl W. Briihl, Materialien zur Didaktik und Methodik des Musikunterrichts Band 6: Materialien Horschulung mit 36 Horbeispiele auf Tonband. Wiesbaden: Breitkopf and Hartel, 1978 p. 7. Richard Colwell, The Evaluation Hall, 1970 p. 96. of Music Teaching and Learning. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice- George Pratt and Michael Henson, "Aural Teaching in the First Year of Tertiary Education: Course" in British Journal of Music Education, 4/2 (1987) pp. 117-135. Thomas A. Regelski, Principles Hall, 1975 p. 210. and Problems of Music Education. 39 zur An Outline for a Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice- Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za al., where attentiveness was presented in three levels, namely awareness, selected attention (concentration). level is reached, learned. function, to receive and controlled because of the fact that the attention is nonnally He quoted the mathematician Martin Wagenschein not focused on music, but on what has to be who said that when the subject has only a medium the teacher and student do not have time to really make contact with the subject. This unfortunately relates to something deeper and more comprehensive pressure to learn something or Meyer pointed out that the development of attention stops as a rule when the first not exclude the fact that one can talk about the subject. Wagenschein uneasiness willingness does continued that an awareness of the subject than a mere intellectual effort. Meyer explained that the from every music example, or to reflect on what was heard, often creates feelings of in students which can be compared with the essay that has to be written after a school outing. It is important to note that the ability to discuss or write about the subject has not been hurt. What is spoiled is the music or the school outing.70 One aspect of the affective goal thus is to enjoy music. Unfortunately, only Christian Grube mentioned this important aspect in his article on sight singing as part of a choir rehearsal.71 Brendel pointed out that anticipation, which is an aspect of awareness, depends on the relation of pre-knowledge and innovation depends on experience. Comprehension to each other. If the heard material contains too much known material, boredom comes into play, whereas tOQ much innovation leaves the listener with the feeling of not comprehending anything. In order to foster attentiveness, care should be taken to keep the balance between the known and the unknown. 72 Finally, knowledge about the reasons for developing the ear will nourish attentiveness. Pratt and Henson fonnulated the following short-tenn goals: "To identify what aural skills musicians actually need and use; To awake students' concepts of what constitutes Aural Training; To foster the idea that aural ability can be developed everywhere, all the time, and with any audible sound "73 70 71 72 73 Heinz Meyer, "'Aufmerksamkeit' 227-231. als Lernziel der Horerziehung" in Musik und Bildung, 63/5 (May 1972) pp. Christian Grube, "1st Blattsingen wirklich so sch~er?" in Musica, 43/3 (May/June 1989) pp. 210-214. Gisela Distler-Brendel "Befahigung zum musikalischen Horen als zentrales Lernziel des Musikunterrichts" Bernhard Dopheide (Ed.), Horerziehung. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1977 p. 229. George Pratt and Michael Henson, "Aural Teaching in the First Year of Tertiary Education: Course" in British Journal of Music Education, 4/2 (1987) pp. 117-135. 40 in An Outline for a Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za (c) Psychomotor skills (Practice-based skills for suppon in other subjects) Three levels of the psychomotor domain (knowledge of movements to be performed, practice and automatism of motoric skills) were defined by Bloom et al. "This behavior usually refers to the development of the muscular action and neuromuscular necessary for skilled behavior such as musical performance. "74 All the ways of demonstrating aural comprehension fall in the psychomotor domain because physical engagement always present in some form or another. The goal of developing psychomotor other subjects, e.g. Instrumental Performance, Music Theory, Conducting The hierarchy of long-tenn is skills implies that skills to support and Eurhythmics There should be a direct contact between aural exercises and the musical reality. 1.2.4 co-ordination should be developed. 7S goals In the following diagram all the long-term goals discussed appear in a ranking order, starting with the simplest and ending with the most complex mental processes involved. The form of a pyramid was chosen in order to portray this characteristic dimensional of the hierarchy of goals. It is, however, important to note that this figure cannot portray the multicharacter of the goals of Aural Training. There are different levels of achievement that can be reached within each goal, which in some cases are a prerequisite for the achievement of other goals. A certain level of inner hearing is, for instance, a prerequisite to develop a practical skill such as sight singing. It is however not necessarily a prerequisite for the recognition of a simple modulation. The two levels indicated within each goal by dotted lines, do not represent the exact number of levels. The number two was only randomly selected in order to illustrate the fact that there is more than one level. Although the goals were organised from the simplest to the most complex, this does not imply that, for example, creative skills should only be included when all the other goals have been achieved. The creativity tasks completed by a novice could, for instance, be the completion of a given phrase by singing, whereas for an advanced student it could be the improvisation of a two-part invention. The ranking order thus is by no means an indication of the importance of the goals, or an indication of the exact order in which the goals should be achieved. Because of the different levels of accomplishment present in each goal, the achievement levels of the different goals can overlap. The development of musical understanding thus is a cyclical process which is represented by a spiral. At the lower end of this process is the potential musician, with the ideal listener at the very top of the spiral. In order to reach the primary long-term goal defmed earlier, or to become the ideal listener, "it would be necessary to move through several pyramids, starting each time at a higher level. This is indicated by the small pyramid at the top. 74 7S Thomas A. Regelski, Principles Hall, 1975 p. 213. and Problems of Music Education. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice- Karl W. BrUhl, Materialien zur Didaktik und Methodik des Musikunterrichts Band 6: Materlalien Horschulung mit 36 Horbeispiele auf Tonband. Wiesbaden: Breitkopf and Hartel, 1978 p. 7. 41 zur Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Fig. 2.2 Hierarchy of long-term goals Ideal listener Cognitive, c Affective o ";; Psychomotor skills 11 ..c ~ c. E o <.) E ::::l os .... o C u Psychomotor skills E c. o Qj ij Q Inner hearing Cognitive skills Memory Macroscopic structural listening Attentiveness Perception of the most basic sensona and musical impulses Potential musician 42 e Affective skills Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 2. TEACHING IDEOLOGIES The teaching environment in which the goals of Aural Training can be achieved is dominated by different teaching philosophies or ideologies. Michael Rogers maintained that all aspects of theory teaching, including Aural Training, should be patterned by design and not by chance. "It is not possible to avoid the question of philosophical orientation by eliminating the preliminary (actually constant) soul searching that is a normal part of setting up or teaching a course; to not decide on a particular approach is itself a decision - decision for confusion and for a course with no bearings. "76 The fact .that teaching ideologies have an influence on listening strategies can be clearly seen in the research results of Rita Aiello et al., who investigated musicians' problem-solving approaches to music listening at the Julliard School of Music in New York. They came to the conclusion that trained musicians differed in their approaches to music listening. Whereas some musicians heard isolated features of the musical patterns, others interpreted what was heard in a holistic, gestalt way. In the first type of hearing, single musical elements were described with brief words. The second type of hearing was dominated by the recognition and description of complete units, "chunking" the music into phrases or sections.77 It is the researcher's opinion that these differences in aural perception were the product of different teaching approaches. Four different teaching ideologies can be determined and are discussed under the following headings: 2.1 2.2 Isolation vs Integration and Comprehension Fragmentation vs Holism Combinations of these ideologies often appear in teaching practice. The merging of isolated and fragmented approaches, on the one hand, and comprehensive and holistic approaches, on the other hand, most often appear. Other combinations are also possible but do not occur frequently in the educational process. 2.1 Isolation vs Integration and Comprehension In the isolated approach Aural Training is dealt with in separate classes, isolated from other subjects. The nature of this isolation can be twofold, either treating Aural Training as a "lone" subject in which the main focus is placed on repeated drill exercises, or as a separate subject in which cross-references are made to other subjects. The latter form represents a combined isolated, comprehensive approach which is in its nature not isolated from other subjects, but is simply a product of curriculum planning. When reference is made to the isolated approach, this second form is not meant. Another manifestation of the "lone ranger syndrome" can be seen in classes where the instruction time is divided _ between different subjects, e.g. Aural Training and MusiCTheory, or Aural Training in the instrumental lesson, with each subject treated as an autonomous domain. An example of this approach can be seen in the timpani instruction 76 Michael R. Rogers, Teaching Approaches in Music Theory - An Overview of Pedagogical Philosophies. Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1984 p. 15. 77 Rita Aiello, J.S. Tanaka and Wayne C. Winborne, "Listening to Mozart: Perceptual differences among musicians" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 4/2 (Fall 1990) p. 289. 43 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za program that was developed by Michael Gill.78 A computer-assisted self-instruction course aimed at helping the stu-dent with the aural recognition of intervals formed part of his program. Gill excluded rhythmical training which forms the heart of percussion playing, concentrating merely on the pitch parameter in order to enable the tuning of the timpani. Apart from the majority of Aural Training workbooks in which isolated exercises are presented with no reference to other music subjects, further examples of the isolated approach can be seen in the Aural Training syllabi of the University of South Africa, The Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music (United Kingdom) and Trinity College of Music (United Kingdom).79 Since about the 1980s there has been a general move back to separated Aural Training classes in the United States of America, possibly as a result of the competency-based learning philosophy of the 1970s, in which 'back-to-basics' played an important role.80 This separation often results in fragmentation. "The community of musicians has never before been confronted with the level of fragmentation that exists today. Analytic method is divorced from musical reflex, composers from performers, and conventional repertoire from new repertoire. In this century these polarities have developed because of the momentum of compartmentalization - a trend that has played an important role in many aspects of culture, education, and technology. Countertrends in specific areas of human endeavor and in the work of extraordinary, multifaceted people have asserted themselves sporadically, but not with the same, sustained persistence as the overriding tendency toward specialization. "81 . It is conspicuous that almost no reference is made in the Aural Training literature to justify the isolated teaching approach. Authors who applied this approach in their workbooks did not comment on the its validity. Reference is most frequently made in the form of criticism. BrUhl, who criticised the fact that the contents of many textbooks were based upon an isolated approach with the main emphasis on intervals, chords, and major and minor tonality, is only one example among many.82 A further criticism, namely a possible negative outcome of an isolated approach to Aural Training, was described by Rupert Thackray: 78 79 Michael James Gill, ZykIus: A Performer's Analysis; A Video Taped Timpani Method utilizing Computer assisted Instruction for Ear Training. Doctoral dissertation, The University of Southern Mississippi 1988. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1988 p. 88. University of South Africa, Practical Musicianship (Aural Tests) Appendix B, Written Examination Syllabuses. Pretoria: UNISA, 1985. The Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music, Aural Tests Parts I-IV. London: ARSM, 1972. Trinity College of Music, Sample Ear Tests. London: Trinity College of Music, [n.d.]. 80 Michael R. Rogers, Teaching Approaches in Music Theory - An Overview of Pedagogical Philosophies. Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1984 p. 19. 81 Michael L. Friedmann, Ear Training for Twentieth Century Music. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990 p. xvii. 82 Karl W. BrUhl, Materialien zur Didaktik und Methodik des Musikunterrichts Band 6: Materialien Horschulung mit 36 Horbeispiele auf Tonband. Wiesbaden: Breitkopf and Hiirtel, 1978 p. 1. 44 zur Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za "Sometimes pupils are rushed through a 'crash' course to prepare them for the aural tests involved in an examination and the fact that pupils with serious aural weaknesses can often manage to pass examinations regardless does not encourage teachers to devote much time and energy to this aspect of their work. "83 According to Thackray one of the reasons why Aural Training is often treated as a separate subject, is that insufficient provision is made for aural exposure in the overall study of music. He critisised theory and harmony lessons where not a note is played, History of Music classes where book knowledge dominates, and Analysis classes which merely involve "eye-work". Rogers was the only author found who reflected on the arguments of the proponents of a separated approach. One of their main arguments is that intellectual comprehension and hearing abilities develop at different rates. As a rule, the ear develops slower than the eye an~ mind. Because of this a combination of written and aural work can sometimes in the ~tegrated approach inflict an unnaturally slow pacing on written topics. For maximum pedagogical effectiveness, taking into account practical teaching reasons and the inherently different nature of skills, they must each be adapted for the individual courses. According to this argument the evaluation of separated courses permits a clearer and stricter monitoring of standards. The counterpart of the isolated approach is the integrated, comprehensive approach which, according to Rogers, became popular during the 1950s in the United States of America. This approach was meant to correct.the splitting of theory programs into numerous different classes (e.g. Part-Writing, Dictation, Sight singing) which were often taught by separate instructors with little use of common analytical principles. The integrated, comprehensive approach guards against merely producing technically-orientated 'pencil-and-paper' musicians, which often is the result of an isolated approach.84 The words integrated and comprehensive indicate that there are two manifestations of this unsegregated teaching ideology. There is, however, only a marginal difference between them. Integration points to the fact that all music subjects should be taught from an auditive point of view. Aural work is also underlined in the comprehensive approach with the main emphasis, however, on the central nature of the subject in which all subjects are combined in an interrelated manner. In the integrated approach Aural Training is incorporated into all other subjects such as Music History, Music Theory, Analysis, Instrumental classes, etc. Giildenstein presented examples of the integration of Aural Training into other subjects. In the Analysis classes students can, for example, sing motives, fugue themes and tonal or real answers.85 Arnold Moller integrated the teaching of elementary Music Theory principles with accompanying aural 83 84 85 Rupert Thackray, "Some Thoughts on Aural Training" in The Australian Journal of Music Education, October 1975 p. 25. Michael R. Rogers, Teaching Approaches in Music Theory - An Overview of Pedagogical Philosophies. Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1984 pp. 16-17. Gustav Giildenstein, Gehorbildung fUr Musiker - Ein Lehrbuch. Basel: Schwabe, 1971 pp. 14-15. 45 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za exercises, e.g. the theoretical knowledge of a chromatic scale is directly followed by singing the scale.86 The fact that most Music Theory books emphasised intellectual knowledge at the cost of sound experiences was strongly criticised by Paul Schenk. He stressed the fact that Aural Training and Music Theory should form a unity in which the same pedagogical themes should be treated alongside each other.87 Several authors recommended the integration of Aural Training into instrumental classes. The main reason for this is that many teachers primarily pay attention to the technical skills of instrumental performers. According to Stanley Schleuter, the aim should rather be "to develop students who have something to perform rather than students who just perform something. "88 At the 1976 D-A-CH Conference theme of integration.89 Hans-Dieter in Regensburg, Neumann, Resch, Wolters and Zehetmair Resch urgently called upon all private instrumental read lectures on the music teachers, as well as music teachers in public schools, to integrate systematic Aural Training into instruction from the very first lesson. Referring to instrumental teaching, he soothed general fears that such an integrated approach can interfere with a rapid progress in playing abilities. On the contrary, Resch pointed to the fact that the student will benefit from the gain in general musicianship, which includes the ability to recognise patterns swiftly. Through the constant develop- ment of aural knowledge of intervals, chords, tonal and atonal relationships, musical memory can be developed in a relaxed, systematic way. Bernita Douglas developed a model for integrating Aural Training into piano lessons. According to her, Aural Training should form part of the whole piano lesson using the pieces that the pupil is playing as instruction Through this approach the pupil has the opportunity material. to develop his musicianship while working with musical entities within a musical context. The end effect will be a pianist who is able to rise above the level of mere technical performance.90 86 87 88 89 90 Arnold Moller, Elementare Musiktheorie Frankfurt: Zimmermann, 1985. und GehOrbiidung mit Aufgaben fiir den Selbstunterricht. Paul Schenk, Schule der musikalischen Gehorbildung - I. Teil: Gehorbildung Unterstufe und Musikkunde. (Eight booklets). Trossingen: Hohner, 1952, preface. This methodological approach is an example of an integrated fragmented approach to Aural Training. Stanley L. Schleuter, A Sound Approach to Teaching Instrumentalists - An Application Learning Sequences. Kent, Ohio: The Kent State University Press, 1984 p. xii. of Content and Annemarie Neumann, "Musiktheorie und GehOrbildung unter instrumentimmanenten Aspekten" (pp. 101-104). Hans-Dieter Resch, "Gedanken fiber eine systematische GehOrbildung im Instrumentalunterricht" (pp. 83-85). Klaus Wolters, "GehOrschulung im Klavierunterricht" (pp. 105-107). Helmut Zehetmair, "Spezielle Aufgaben einer GehOrbildung im Violinunterricht" (pp. 91-94). All in Josef Mayr-Kern (Ed.), Materialien und Dokumente aus der Musikpadagogik, Band 6: Musikalische Grundschulung an Ausbildungstatten fiir Musikberufe - Dokumentation iiber die D-A-CH-Tagung 1976. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1978. Bernita Douglas, Riglyne vir geintegreerde sis, University of Stellenbosch 1990. gehooropleiding 46 by klavieronderrig. Unpublished Master's the- Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Basically the same teaching ideology was portrayed by Schleuter who applied content and learning sequences to instrumental teaching. instrumental The goal of his book is to teach tonal and rhythmic technique. One of the main principles symbols, and he recommended without notation, in his approach understanding while developing is that sound should be emphasised before the singing of tunes before they are played, as well as the playing of familiar tunes "by ear". Rhythm readiness should be developed by means of kinesthetic response by moving to music (dancing and free movements). An example of a first lesson on a woodwind instrument is used to demonstrate how students can familiarise themselves with the tonal patterns doh re mi and mi re doh. The students should be able to sing these patterns, using tonal syllables before continuing with the next step. Other steps involve learning the correct fingering used through observation, using the two patterns to play familiar songs ("Mary had a little lamb" and "Hot cross buns") by ear, and transposing approach are numerous. the songs to other keys. According to Stanley the advantages of this Not only are musical sound and tone quality always emphasised fingerings and technical development first, but learning new are assisted with a small vocabulary of tonal patterns. Technique thus results from musical activity .91 The comprehensive approach refers to a tertiary curricular arrangement subjects such as Music Literature, Formal Analysis and Aural Training Harmony, unified semester course, called Comprehensive Counterpoint, Musicianship. elements and ideas from the various music disciplines, that attempts to combine and interrelate within a single The rationale behind this philosophy in order to teach students to understand is to connect music as a unified whole rather than as detached fragments.92 General specific traits of Comprehensive (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (t) 91 92 93 Musicianship (CM) are as follows: All style periods are treated as being equally important. Real compositions in a variety of textures and mediums, as opposed to artificial exercises in four-part chorale style, form the core of study. Parametric analysis - both written and aural - is prominently featured. Composition and/or improvisation projects, not just mechanical drills, are stressed. Rehearsing and performing of student compositions or other compositions in class are part of many CM programmes. Just as swimming cannot be learned from a book, real music learning rarely takes place without this live contact. . All activities and components are related to one another and lead to a unified and complete understanding. The ultimate goal is to rectify the compartmentalization of music instruction by incorporating holistic learning.93 Stanley L. Schleuter, A Sound Approach to Teaching Instrumentalists Learning Sequences. Ohio, Kent: The Kent State University Press, 1984. - An Application of Content and Michael R. Rogers, Teaching Approaches in Music Theory - An Overview Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1984 pp. 16 and 20. of Pedagogical Philosophies. Michael R. Rogers, Teaching Approaches in Music Theory - An Overview Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1984 pp. 20-21. of Pedagogical Philosophies. 47 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Although the appearance phenomenon, of the subject Comprehensive Musicianship on a tertiary level is a North American subjects with the same traits can be found in German tertiary music education.94 The following are examples of such courses: Hochschule der Kilnste Berlin, Winter semester 1989/90: "Horanalyse notierter und nichtnotierter analysis of notated and unnotated music); "Form - Formenlehre Musik" (Aural - Horen" (Form - Form Analysis - Listening). Hochschulefir Musik Detmold, Winter semester 1990/91: "AbhOrpraktikum: Das Streichquartett dert" (Aurally based practical course: The string quartet in the nineteenth century). Hochschule fir im 19. Jahrhun- Musik und Theater Hannover, Winter "Horkolloquium: semester 1990/91 and Summer semester GroBbesetzte Vokalmusik" (Aural colloquy: Vocal music with a large setting). 1991: Staatliche Hochschulefir Musik Freiburg im Breisgau, Summer semester 1991: "Einfiihrungskurs in die angewandte GehOrbildung mit orginal-instrumentierten Literaturbeispielen" (Introductory course in applied Aural Training with music literature examples in their original orchestration); "Stilkunde " (The Study of the Art of compositional style periods). Staatliche Hochschule fir Musik Karlsruhe, Winter semester 1990/91: "Analytisches Horen; Satztechniken des Spatbarock und Ubergang zur Wiener Klassik mit Horiibungen" (Analytical listening: Formal techniques Late Baroque and the transition to the Viennese Classic with aural exercises). of the Staatliche Hochschulefir Musik und Darstellende Kunst Stuttgan, 1988-1992: "Horanalyse in Verbindung mit Formenlehre" (Aural Analysis in connection with Form Analysis classes); "Repetitorium der Musikgeschichte _ Anleitungen zum Erkennen und Bestimmen von Klangbeispielen aus dem Mittelalter bis zur Gegenwart" (Revision course on Music History - Guidance for the recognition and determination of acoustical examples from the Middle Ages to the Present). Rogers addressed certain problems that surround Comprehensive Musicianship Classes. A few of them are: the lack of appropriate textbooks, difficulty in calibrating grading factors, lack of suitable teachers with a broad enough background of various subjects in order to explain relationships between details and their whole contexts, lack of time for in-depth study (the issue of breadth vs depth is raised).9S 2.2 Fragmentation vs Holism The fundamental difference between the fragmented and holistic approaches can be described by the terms micro- scopic (focus placed on the smallest unit), and macroscopic (a wide-angle approach in which the whole is the starting point).96 The terms perceptual (accurate perception of sonic events) and structural (comprehension 94 9S 96 of musical rela- Observations made by the researcher at different Musikhochschulen, as well as information found in Directories of Lectures (Vorlesungsverzeichnisse) which are published every semester at every Musikhochschule in Germany. Michael R. Rogers, Teaching Approaches in Music Theory - An Overview Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1984 pp. 22-23. of Pedagogical Philosophies. "In micro listening the concentration is toward the note by note, chord by chord progress of the composition dwelling primarily on the details of the moment. In macro listening the emphasis is on the relationships of the larger units such as phrases, periods, and sections." Bruce Benward, Workbook in Advanced Ear Training: Teachers Dictation Manual. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm.C. Brown, 1961 p. ix. 48 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za tionships) are also used in the same context.97 Richard Ashley also referred to the microscopic and perceptual as the atomistic. 98 In the fragmented intervals, approach, scales and chords, an Aural Training course is as a rule started with the recognition of simple diationic and ends with complex homophonic, polyphonic and chromatic one to four-voice dictation, taken from the music literature. In this approach all aural knowledge thus evolves from one cell. The fact that beginners tend to think "purely in terms of atoms - of the smallest units out of which the sum could be constructed" was underlined by Gould. According to him, knowledge of the construction nents of tonal music is the passport to a wider world of musical relationships. of the elementary compo- He called this first level of thinking the perceptual level, with the next level that of structural thinking. Pitches and intervals are taken as perceptual entities out of which motives, themes and arpeggiations of this approach in which rhythmic are, for example, constructed.99 Samuel Adler provided an example and melodic elements were separated. He started with second intervals, thirds, fourths, etc. and recommended then that students should combine exercises such as taking a rhythmic exercise and adding pitches in order to create a melody by using a Phrygian or other modal scale.lOO Another aural instructor who based his teaching ideology on starting with a single cell is Max Battke. The essence of his justification for using a fragmented approach is based on the harmonic overtone series. According to him the roots of music theory can be found in the natural major triad which consists of the fourth, fifth and sixth overtones (relationships 4:5:6). teaching experiences, From this Battke derived that Aural Training should start with triads. Drawing on his own he observed that beginner pupils who often could not distinguish between second intervals, could distinguish between different triads. It is, however, astounding that Battke did not apply this theory to his two other sight singing texts, which start with second and third intervals.lOl Although Music Education is dominated by the fragmented approach, there is growing criticism of this approach. "... the identification of intervals seems to be a major component of many ear training and sightsinging texts, CAl music software, and presumably, most ear training programs. But at the same time, many aural 97 98 Emily Ruth Brink, A Cognitive Approach to the Teaching of Aural Skills viewed as Applied Music Theory. Doctoral dissertation, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 1980. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1980 p. 2. Richard Douglas Ashley, Toward a Theory of Instruction in Aural Skills. Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 1982. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1982 p. 100. 99 Murray J. Gould, Paths to Musical Thought - An Approach York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979 pp. 1-2. 100 Samuel Adler, Sight Singing. New York: W.W. Norton, 1979. 101 Max Battke, Die Erziehung des Tonsinnes - 304 Ubungen fiir Ohr, Auge und Gedachtnis. Berlin-Gr. Lichterfelde: Chr. Friedrich Vieweg, 1905. Primavista - Eine Methode, yom Blatt singen zu lernen. West-Berlin: Albert Stahl, 1900. UnerschOpfliche Ubungen fiir das Primavistasingen und fiir den Rhythmus in Form von achttaktigen veranderbaren Notenreihen, verwendbar auch fiir das Musikdiktat. Berlin-Gr. Lichterfelde: Chr. Friedrich Vieweg, 1913. 49 to Ear Training through Sight Singing. New Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za skills teachers question their importance - or the value of the method by which they are most often taught. A similar situation exists with regard to triads. "102 William Thomson effectiveness commented of pre-determined on the research. done by Ann Blombach and Regena Parrish, who investigated isolated interval drills in an easy-to-difficult the set of groupings, as opposed to randomly selected groupings of intervals. Although the placement of less easily confused intervals in small groups for beginner practice (with a gradual increase in both the size of the groups and the difficulty of distinguishing between intervals in the groups), is supposedly more effective than using groups of randomly chosen intervals, the latter appeared to be at least as effective and were apparently validity more so in some cases. They concluded that their results challenged the of some of the most basic Aural Training "character" assumptions.l03. Thomson, however, pointed out that the of an interval is influenced by its context, and maintained that ignorance or insufficient respect for this simple principle has "plagued" studies of intervals and melody throughout the history of empirical psychology. He further stated that until experimental studies (and pedagogy) respect this reality, the perceptual nature of intervals will always be rapped in mystery. Regarding the adequacy of drill exercises of isolated intervals, he wrote: "In the early and gullible years of my teaching career I marvelled on occasion at a few boastful colleagues who informed me of their individual roads to ear-training success. All one must do, one of them once told me, was spend the first two weeks with freshmen mastering aural interval recognition. From there on, the sailing was as on glassy seas. Some decade or so after these rash promises were made, I was forced to conclude, reluctantly, that my informants were either sorcerers or liars. Pitch intervals yield to no such 'mastery', whether in two weeks or in two years. "104 The main criticism of the fragmented approach is that isolated intervals, chords, modulations and often "self- composed" dictations form the core of Aural Training, without referring to the musical context or larger relationships in examples from the music literature.10s organism.106 Furthermore, The constant occupation with detail draws the attention from the entire Leopold Spitzer pointed out that an isolated musical element such as an interval is only a measurable unit in which the true identity of its character is not revealed. He compared the fact that the character of an interval approach is influenced ('Aha, by its environment with the phenomenon of optical illusion.107 A mere "quantified" a fifth, a dotted note') does not allow the conscious penetration 102 Paula Telesco, "Contextual Ear Training" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, (thinking processes, emotional 5/2 (Fall 1991) p. 179. 103 Ann K. Blombach and Regena T. Parrish, "Acquiring Aural Interval Identification Skills: Random vs Ordered Grouping" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 2/1 (Spring 1988) pp. 113-131. 104 William Thomson, lOS "What is an interval?" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 2/2 (Fall 1_988)p. 321. Theo Hirsbrunner, "Anleitungen zum verstehenden Horen wahrend des Unterrichts in Formenlehre und Musikgeschichte" in Josef Mayr-Kern (Ed.), Materialien und Dokumente aus der Musikpadagogik, Band 6: Musikalische Grundschulung an Ausbildungstatten fUr Musikberufe - Dokumentation tiber die D-A-CHTagung 1976. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1978 p. 63. 106 Werner Piitz, "Zur Horerziehung 1972) pp. 232-233. in der musikalischen Berufsausbildung" in Musik und Bildung, 63/5 (May 107 Leopold Spitzer, "Gehorbildung: Intervall oder stillbezogene Phrase?" in Josef Mayr-Kern (Ed.), Materialien und Dokumente aus der Musikpiidagogik, Band 6: Musikalische Grundschulung an Ausbildungstiitten fUr Musikberufe - Dokumentation tiber die D-A-CH-Tagung 1976. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1978 p. 99. 50 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za experiences and willingness) of what was heard. Not only is the ear involved in Aural Training, but the whole human being. 108 The fragmented approach thus is by no means a guarantee for the undersMnding of larger form schemes or inner relationships between sounds. "Even the student who is able to notate a passage accurately may not be able to make any applicable musical observations of what he has just heard. "109 Traditional Aural Training as a rule meets the necessary requirements for structural hearing, but seldom develops beyond this stage. In most Aural Training texts, knowledge is rarely considered adequate to handle entire pieces.110 Referring to the above criticism, "Entformalisierung Irene Matz read a lecture at the 6. Stuttgarter des GehOrbildungsunterrichts" (Abandoning Sommerkurse 1990 on the theme [traditional] concepts of Aural Training).l11 The essence of her lecture was that teachers should get rid of drill exercises which have the sole purpose of acquainting students with certain models. Instead, examples from the music literature should be used in order to acquaint them with the aesthetic qualities and emotional associations of what was heard.112 The holistic approach has developed as a result of several teachers' dissatisfaction and because of the applications of the results of newer trends in music psychological Brink and Hiranpradist the Behaviourist with the fragmented approach, research to Aural Training. explained that music education was dominated during the first half of the twentieth century by viewpoint on learning.113 The Behaviourists believe that the only cause of behaviour concentrate exclusively is an active and changing environment. on observable Listening behaviour behaviour and cannot be improved until the right external conditions are present. As a result of this approach, proper behaviour is reinforced by repetition and drill until the correct response is consistently given. It follows that Aural behaviour can only be expressed in terms of being correct and incorrect. The fragmented approach is thus a result of the Behaviourist school of psychological thinking. 108 Hermann Sprenger, Methodik der Gehorbildung. Unpublished manuscript, 109 Robert Gauldin, "Teaching Music Theory: The Conservatory" in Journal [n.d.] p. 6. of. Music Theory, 18/1 (Spring 1974) p.77. 110 Emily Ruth Brink, A Cognitive Approach to the Teaching of Aural Skills viewed as Applied Music Theory. Doctoral dissertation, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 1980. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1980 p. 101. 111 According to the Cassells Worterbuch (Munchen: Compact, 1968 p. 130) the prefix ent- in combination other words indicates establishment of, or entry into a new state, or the abandonment of an old state. 112 Lecture "Horen neuer Musik" read by Prof. Irene Matz at the 6. Stuttgarter jUr Musik und Darstellende Kunst Stuttgart in 1990. Sommerkurse with 1990, Hoehsehule 113 Barbara Ruth Hiranpradist, Formal Operational Thought as a Dimension of Music Listener Behavior. Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University 1986. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1986 pp. 1-5. 51 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za In contrast to this, the Cognitive approach was developed. Behaviour was examined as the result and manifestation of inner mental processes. Listening involves The human mind is believed to interaCt with the environment sensation, perception, imagery, retention, recall, problem-solving and not controlled and thinking. by it. Research that deals with the listening process is therefore important for Aural Training.114 According to psychological later stage entireties, research results, musical perception does not start with recognizing details and then at a but moves inversely from the sum total to the details.11S Margaret Grace O'Connor seventh and eighth grade junior high school students had "the cognitive ability to discriminate and four musical concepts simultaneously." single discriminations, or as multiple She continued, discriminations, "aural discrimination may be developed found that aurally, two, three, of selected musical concepts, effectively within as a total musical context. "116 This means that the musical context and musical relationships should be the two main components in the teaching of Aural Training. Students are to begin with small but complete musical structures, with actual compositions. Particular sonic events can be isolated briefly for concentrated analysis, which points to the fact that both structural and perceptual tasks can be included in the holistic approach. It is important that both tasks should be included in Aural Training to avoid the danger of never being able to deal with wholes on the one hand or, on the other hand, of never moving beyond the stage of the broad and general features of a composition. There must be a constant moving back and forth between perception and synthesis,117 an approach that was also described by Paul Hindemith.118 3. THE CONTENTS AND TARGET GROUP OF AURAL TRAINING The contents of Aural Training are a function of the chosen teaching ideology. An isolated, fragmented approach would differ in contents from a comprehensive holistic approach. The influences of the fragmented approach can, for example, be seen in the fact that most dictation exercises seldom exceed the length of a phrase and are confined to 114 Emily Ruth Brink, A Cognitive Approach to the Teaching of Aural Skills viewed as Applied Music Theory. Doctoral dissertation, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 1980. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1980 pp. 12-31. 11S Werner Piitz, "Zur Horerziehung 1972) p. 233. A more detailed description in der musikalischen of Gestalt Psychology Berufsausbildung" in Musik und Bildung, 63/5 (May and its relation to Aural Training is presented in Chapter Four. 116 Sister Margaret Grace O'Connor "Development of Discriminatory Music Listening Skills in the Junior High School utilizing Programmed Instruction" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 37/3 (September 1976) p. 1446-A. 117 Emily Ruth Brink, A Cognitive Approach to the Teaching of Aural Skills viewed as Applied Music Theory. Doctoral dissertation, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 1980. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1980 p. 156. 118 Paul Hindemith, Elementary Training for Musicians. 52 London: Schott, 1949 p. 182. Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za pitch-time factors as performed on the piano. Examples are often limited to late eighteenth-and nineteenth-century style periods. 119 As mentioned in the previous section, this fragmented approach has been criticised by many authors. Based on this criticism, and on music psychological grounds, the contents that should be included in an Aural Training course are discussed from a holistic, comprehensive Listening is a physiological-psychological of the human being. point of view. process that is influenced by the biological and psychological When music is heard, an acoustical composition impulse is not only perceived, but also subjectively experienced and evaluated.120 Because of this involvement of aesthetic emotional experiences, Aural Training should deal with "real" music. "All Ear Training work must be based upon Musical Appreciation; the technical side must never be divorced from the aesthetic, and the whole aim of the study must be the fostering of real musical perception in the pupil. "121 "Artificial" self-composed exercises which often are isolated from a musical context, requirements of "real" musical perception. quality. Pedagogically This is not to say that all "self-composed" usually do not meet the phrases are harmful or of poor speaking, they may have some value and students can certainly learn from them, but in most textbooks with self-composed exercises this is not the case. Not all Aural Training teachers are composers and exer- cises tend to be mechanical, existing merely of rows of connected pedagogical problems which the student has to solve. Real music perception does not only have an aesthetic facet, but also involves knowledge and understanding of what one is hearing. (This is in fact the general goal of Aural Training as was explained in section 1.2.) Ashley explained that musical knowledge adequately large number characteristics, has two main aspects. of musical works. understanding Firstly, Secondly, how compositional musicians are expected to become acquainted a large general body of knowledge about music (style techniques work, being able to place a work in a general historical context) is expected.122 Aural Training cannot thrive on the basis of a small repertoire. 119 with an A person who is acquainted Anna C. Naude, 'n Ondersoek na die geskiktheid van sillabi vir gehoortoetse in gegradeerde rnusiekeksarnens. Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Stellenbosch 1989 pp. 183-184. Emily Ruth BrinK, A Cognitive Approach to the Teaching of Aural Skills viewed as Applied Music Theory. Doctoral dissertation, Northwestern University Evanston, Illinois 1980. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1980 p. 41. 120 Karl Gustav Fellerer, "Der Wandel des H6rens im 16. Jahrhundert" in Veroffentlichungen Neue Musik und Musikerziehung Darmstadt, Band 3: Der Wandel des rnusikalischen Merseburger, 1962 p. 7. des Instituts fUr Horens. Berlin: 121 Stewart MacPherson and Ernest Read, Aural Joseph Williams, 1953 p. 1. Part Culture based upon Musical Appreciation, I. London: 122 Richard DouglaS Ashley, Toward a Theory of Instruction in Aural Skills. Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 1982. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1982 pp. 25-26. 53 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za with various styles of music will be able to understand more aurally.123 The inclusion of music from a variety of musical style periods was emphasised by several authors such as Benward, Bahm, Levin and Martin and Ottman.l24 Sprenger instruction suggested material, the incorporation of musical works from the main instrument literature of the student as as a way of fostering knowledge of the standard literature and to encouraged students to delve deeper into the musical repertoire.l25 Justin London, amongst others, furthermore advocated the use of Pop Music in Aural Training.126 Regarding the incorporation of music from the twentieth century, there. is a growing call for a greater awareness of this style period with all its different branches. Brian Dennis pointed out that the health of an art is in danger if those who teach it fall too far behind those who practise it.127 Experience with atonal music has shown that concentrated listening, which forms a major part of Aural Training, also serves as a way to break down students I resistance to New Music.128 Since Lars Edlund criticised conventional Aural Training for being limited to the major/minor style periods in 1963, a number of books have been published on this subject.129 Apart from the fact that authors started to include music from the twentieth century in their workbooks,130 Haas and Karkoschka developed a course in which only twentieth century-music U3 124 features.131 Hilda Bester concentrated Clemens KUhn, GehOrbildung .im Selbststudium. solely on atonal music in her research and Elizabeth Marvin Kassel: Barenreiter, 1983 p. 13. Kurt BabIn, "Das Konzept der GehOrbildung an der Musikakademie und am Konservatorium Ziirich" in Schweizerische Musikzeitung, 122/6 (November/December 1982) pp. 373-374. Bruce Benward, Workbook in Advanced Ear Training - Teachers Dictation Manual. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm.C. Brown, 1961 p. ix. Robert D. Levin and Louis Martin, Sight Singing and Ear Training N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1988 p. xvii. Literature. Englewood Robert W. Ottman, More Music for Sight Singing. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1981 p. iii. 125 Hermann Sprenger, Methodik der Gehorbildung. through Unpublished manuscript, [n.d.] p. 15. 126 Justin London, "'One Step Up': A Lesson from Pop Music" in Journal (Spring 1990) pp. 111-114. 127 Brian Dennis, Experimental sity Press, 1970 p. 1. Music in Schools - Towards 128 Hermann Grabner, Neue Gehoriibung. Cliffs, of Music Theory Pedagogy, 4/1 a New World of Sound. London: Oxford Univer- Berlin: Max Hesses, 1962 p. 3. 129 Lars Edlund, Modus Novus - Studies in Reading Atonal Melodies. London: J. and W. Chester, 1963 p. 13. 130 For example: Roland Mackamul, Lehrbuch der Gehorbildung, Murray J. Gould, Paths to Musical Thought - An Approach York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979. Bander I und II. Kassel: Barenreiter, 1969. to Ear Training through Sight Singing. New 131 Hubert Haas and Erhard Karkoscka, neue musik horen - Eine Horerziehung Praxis. Rohrdorf: Rohrdorf, 1981. 54 mit neuer Musik in Theorie und Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za proposed a one semester contour-based model designed especially for the teaching of non-tonal music at a tertiary level.132 The most recent publication that could be found on this theme is by Michael Friedmann.133 The incorporation of examples from the music literature in Aural Training consequently implies the inclusion of all the parameters of music, treated within a musical context. As an effect of this, different timbres (instruments) should also form part of the Aural Training lessons. The mere use of the piano as opposed to other instruments has been criticised.134 Sprenger pointed out that the exact duration of tones could not be perceived when using the piano. He was, however, sceptical as to whether the use of "sound illusions" as they appear on cassettes and other electronic devices would be able to assist "live" hearing. As a solution to this problem Sprenger recommended that the first hearing of a dictation exercise should be played from a recording in which the whole orchestrated performance is heard, and not only the melody. In the following stages the phrase should be played on the piano in a slower tempo.l35 KUhn warned against a counter-reaction in the total omission of the piano. The versatile use of the piano, however, should never become an excuse for laziness or monotonous Aural Training.136 Another aspect that should be included in Aural Training is the application of a wide spectrum of methods, The multi-dimensional nature of music can never be captured in two or three methods. Janet McLoud McGaughey criticised textbooks for limiting their teaching approaches to Sight singing and Dictation.137 To summarise, four aspects of the contents of Aural Training are thus important: (a) (b) (c) (d) Examples from the Music Literature should form the core of Aural Training. All style periods should be presented. All music parameters should be incorporated. A variety of methods should be applied. The target group of Aural Training (the people who should participate in Aural classes) includes all persons who are exposed to some form of musical training. On the Primary and Secondary school music level, Aural Training should be included as a form of music appreciation and as a way to become acquainted with and understand music. Pupils taking instrumental lessons should be exposed to a more in-depth form of Aural Training. On the third, tertiary level it is unthinkable to have musicians without a trained ear. 132 Hilda Bester, Gehooropleiding in die Twintigste eeu met spesiale verwysing na Nuwe Musiek. Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Stellenbosch 1983 p. 25. Elizabeth West Marvin, A Generalized Theory of Musical Contour: Its Application to Melodic and Rhythmic Analysis of Non-Tonal Music and its Perceptual and Pedagogical Implications. Doctoral dissertation, Eastman School of Music at the University of Rochester 1988. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1988. 133 Michael L. Friedmann, Ear Training for Twentieth Century Music. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990. 134 Hermann Grabner, Neue Gehoriibung. Berlin: Max Hesses, 1962 p. 4. 135 . Hermann Sprenger, Methodik der Gehorbildung. Unpublished manuscript, [n.d.] pp. 12-13. 136 Clemens KUhn, Gehorbildung im Selbststudium. Kassel: Biirenreiter, 1983 p. 17. 137 Janet McLoud McGaughey, Practical Ear Training. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1966 Preface. 55 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Within this realm of all people who are involved in music, there are two types of hearers - those with relative, and those with perfect pitch. Whereas the relative hearer comprehends music in terms of relative inner relationships between pitches without being able to name the pitches when the beginning note name is absent, the hearer with perfect pitch possesses the extraordinary long-term memory ability of being able to name pitches without knowing the note name of a reference tone. This definition of the perfect pitch hearer is a very general one which does not incorporate all the different facets of perfect pitch. A distinction is, for example, made between the passive (tone recognition) and active (tone reproduction) perfect pitch hearing abilities. Revesz, Wellek and Bachem developed differentiated classifying models in which they attempted to classify different types of perfect pitch hearers. Eva Marie Heyde compared the three models in a Table.l38 138 Eva Marie Heyde, Was ist absolutes Horen? Eine musikpsychologische Untersuchung. Munchen: Profil, 1987 p. 113. 56 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Table 2.1 Heyde: Classification models of perfect pitch appearances - Revesz, Wellek and Bachem139 REVESZ WELLEK BACHEM (1913, 1946) (1963) (1937) Total perfect pitch (Independent from pitch region) General hearing (Independent from timbre) ..c:: Genuine perfect pitch ...• .2 .. Q) 0.. ] IPartlal perfect pitch 'Q. Earlier named: "regional" ...• perfect pitch (Dependant Q) on pitch region) 0.. Speciaf pitch hearing (Dependent on timbre) .2 .. A. Genuine absolute pitch, based upon immediate recognition of tone chroma ~ 'Q. Partial perfect pitch I. Universal a. InfalIible (for every range of all musical tones, even noises) ..c:: b. FalIible (for most musical instruments ~ 'Q. with half-tone and octave errors) ...• C.) II. Limited ~ Q) a. As to region 0.. b. As to timbre c. To both ill Borderline a. Inaccurate b. Inaccurate and variable - ..c:: ~ "Q. ...• .. 8. ~ 0 c:: N* (7) (44) (8) (5) (7) (17) (2) ~ Cii Standard tone memory! hearing (So-calIed inner comparative tone) .E C.) B. Quasi-absolute pitch, based upon a standard and the interval sense I. With aural standard (violin a, middle (3) ..c:: piano c) ~ 'Q. II. With vocal standard (singing, humming) (10) < ..c:: ...• ~ 'Q. Regional hearing (Bigger average error Q) tolerance; Present in c. non-musicians; ~ With an average error of a minor third) ] .. .r:: ~ 's. ...• Mere pitch estimation (Also done by "unmusical" persons) .2 .. Q) c. ...• 0 .2 .. C. Pseudo-absolute pitch, described as absolute pitch by several authors, based upon estimation of 0 c:: tone height (studied 7) Q) c. ...• ~ Cii .a ~, < Z In a further diagram, Heyde provided * N = Number of persons who took part in Bachem's investigation a summary of the phenomenon Total (103) of perfect pitch with the requirements factors that influence it. A translation by the researcher follows in Fig. 2.3 139 Bachem's classification appeared in Heyde's dissertation in English, and was not translated by the researcher. 57 and Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Fig. 2.3 Heyde: Perfect pitch - requirements and factors of influence Perfect pitch Ability to corre<:tIJame tones (keys) and (root) frequencies Specific 10ng.te) memoty ability Inherited reqnirements (POSSlblY~ Envlrm::::::~n=. the environment) ment (degree of influence musical aptitudinal factors) primarily the musical environpossibly also dependent Rudiments, rules and regularities of musical sound material, performance practices and methods, on practice: teaching amongst others: Tone system/stave; Maj .lmin. tonality; Tempered semitone system; Frequency and nature of the use of certain tones/keys; Tuning tone norm ("Stimmtonnormierung"); Tuning tone variation ("Stimmtonschwankungen "); Instrumentation; Time moment, intensity, duration and nature of musical education; Influences of traditional opinions and perceptions, amongst other things, of the characteristics of keys tural 1 habits '-----~D It is possible that a so-called "sensitive phase" exists in early childhood Incidental learning (perfec pitch learned in the same way as the mother tongue) ~arison Inte~al learning (compare investigations concentrating on the acquisition (training) of perfect pitch) of the hear~ with the inner memory-based association system 1 (Un)differentiated building of categories and the nature of the reference points depends on: Aptitude ";d env'ronmelal conditional f",tors Different d'stinct'ol of perfect pitch (differential and general) 58 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za There is a tendency amongst several musicians and non-musicians to claim that absolute hearers should be excluded from Aural Training, or should only be partially included in Aural classes. Christoph Hempel, for example, recommended that students with perfect pitch should ignore the melody chapter in his book.140 Monika Quistorp pointed out that the perfect pitch ability can be beneficial regarding twentieth century music during the first listening stages. She however remarked that the first initial rapid reaction to what was heard is by no means an indication that perfect pitch possessors can understand plodem music in its structure and contents better than relative pitch hearers. She criticised perfect pitch hearers for hearing isolated pitches without paying attention to the relationships between notes.141 The same criticism was voiced by Hubert Haas, who indicated that many students and teachers are satisfied with a superficial approach in which all the note names of the heard notes are correctly imitated. Instead he recommended a deeper penetration into the creation process in which reproduction serves a higher purpose than imitation. 142 John J. Barkowsky found, amongst other things, that absolute pitch possessors performed better when the time between what was heard and the response to it (response time) was shorter, while relative pitch possessors performed better when the response time was longer.143 This outcome of his research confirms the observations and notions of Quistorp and Haas that perfect pitch hearers tend to hear isolated pitches and therefore performed better when the response time was shorter. Relative pitch hearers, on the other hand, needed more time to analyse relationships and therefore performed better when the response time was longer. All the previous references to perfect pitch were made by researchers and/or Aural Training teachers. Heino Schwarting, however, wrote an article on this theme from a perfect pitch possessor's point of view. He described the frustrations of absolute hearing (i.e. singing in a choir that rose or fell by a semitone during the course of a performance) up to the point where he started to lose this ability after a period of years. He eventually trained himself to hear relatively and recommended this type of hearing for other perfect pitch possessors,144 140 Christoph Hempel, GehOrbildung - Anleitung und Material fUr das gemeinsame Uben. Zurich: Karl Heinrich M6seler, 1976 p. 11. 141 Monika Quistorp, Die Gehorbildung - Das Kernfach musikalischer Erziehung. Wiesbaden: Breitkopf and Hartel, 1979 pp. 60-61. 142 Prof. Hubert Haas in an interview with the researcher on 7 November 1988. 143 John J. Barkowsky, "An Investigation into Pitch Identification Behavior of Absolute Pitch and Relative Pitch Subjects" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 48/7 (January 1988) p. 1688-A. 144 Heino Schwarting, "Vom absoluten zum relativen GehOr" in Uben und Musizieren, 6/2 (April 1989) pp. 6872. 59 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za In order to force perfect pitch possessors to pay attention to inner tensions between tones, thus thinking relatively, Grabner recommended that they notate dictated examples in other keys than those in which they are played.l45 Quistorp suggested that relative and perfect pitch possessors should be placed in separate classes.146 From the above discussion it is clear that both relative and perfect pitch hearers should be included in the teaching of all Aural Training aspects. Finally, regarding the target group of Aural Training, there are a few external circumstances that can have an influence on the success of a student's progress. Sprenger pointed out that the following factors played a role in the success of an Aural Training course: instruction hour, location of the classroom (outside disturbances), age of the student, size of the group, achievement differences within the group, ordering of groups according to their main instrument, student's willingness to cooperate, aptitude, student's personal listening experiences, current physiological and psychological condition of the student, student's knowledge about own weaknesses and strengths, student's achievement in comparison with classmates' achievements (either stimulated or hampered), the main instrument of the student (violinists often hear higher notes better than violoncello players) as well as the attitude of the teacher. 147 4. l\1ETHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES148 "Jeder GehOrbildungslehrer muJ3 seine Lehrmethode selbst entwickeln und seinen Lehrstoff selbst aufbauen, weil ein umfassendes Standardwerk, an das er sich anIehnen konnte, fehlt. "149 The nature of methodological approaches to Aural Training is well reflected in the above quotation. It is a perennial problem that no comprehensive work exists in which all methods of Aural Training appear without being biased towards at least one of these procedures. As a result of this, teaching practices tend to stagnate. An overview of various Aural Training methods can revitalise this stagnation, not to serve as the [mal word on Aural Training, but to stimulate interest in adapting other methods or even develop new ones. Against this background, the purpose of this section is to provide an overview of methods that were found in Aural Training literature and research ventures. However, it is an impossible task to write a complete ultimate instruction 145 Hermann Grabner, Neue Gehoriibung. Berlin: Max Hesses, 1962 p. 5. 146 Monika Quistorp, Die GehOrbiidung - Das Kernfach musikalischer Erziehung. Wiesbaden: Breitkopf and Hartel, 1979 p. 66. 147 Hermann Sprenger, Methodik der Gehorbildung. Unpublished manuscript, [n.d.] pp. 4-5. 148 No strict semantical differentiation was made between the tenns Methological approaches, Methods and Tasks. 149 Roland Mackamul, Lehrbuch der Gehorbildung, Band I. Kassel: Biirenreiter, 1969 p. 7. "Every Aural Ttaining teacher has to develop his own teaching method and build up his own instruction material, because a complete standard work towards which he can orientate himself does not exist." (Reseacher's translation.) 60 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za manual which takes into account" all the little teaching nuances, perspectives and varieties of pupils' personalities. The beauty of Aural Training is that there is no ultimate method in which the fmal word has been spoken. Instead, it can be a living subject presented in different creative ways. All methods have their roots in a few basic assignments. methodological • • • • • Wilhelm Lehr distinguished between five different procedures: Perception: perception of all appearances in the sphere of music and the sound world; Apperception: perception of all acoustical happenings and active processing (individual estimation); Repetition: repetition of what was perceived (verbally or in a written form); Nomination: to name and describe .• using subject-related terminology; Production: creative acts in the form of completion tasks or students' own compositions,150 These methods described nomination, by Lehr, comply with the action fields described production)151 and Fried Weisbrod (production, reproduction, by BrUhl (apperception, transPQsition, Weisbrod did not see these fields of action as closed fields, but rather as interrelated, repetition, reception, reflection)152. interchangeable pivotal points within complex musical behaviour. Gauldin described five basic hearing skills: Conversion of sound to symbol; Conversion of symbol Comparison of sound to symbol; Conversion of symbol to imagined sound; Immediate instrumental to sound; reproduction of a previous sound source.153 Brink described seven aural tasks more explicitly: • • • • • • • To To To To To To To reproduce in body motions what was heard reproduce in sound what was heard produce graphically what was heard notate what was heard verbalize what was heard identify discrepancies between performance and score sing from a score,154 Taking into account the abovementioned method is discussed briefly. rudimentary methods, a list of methods is presented after which every As was explained earlier, the sole goal of Section Four is to present an overview of methods, permitting only a sketchy report on the various methods. Also, although the different methods are described individually, combinations of them frequently appear in teaching practice. 150 Wilhelm Lehr, "GehOrbildung, Gehortraining, 1986) p. 27. Horerziehung" 151 Karl W. BrUhl, Materialien zur Didaktikund Horschulung mit 36 Horbeispiele auf Tonband. in Neue Musikzeitung, 34/5 (October/November Methodik des Musikunterrichts Band 6: Materialien Wiesbaden: Breitkopf and Hartel, 1978 p. 9. 152 Fried Weisbrod, "Methoden der Horerziehung und der GehOrbildung" Methoden des Musikunterrict~. Mainz: Schott, 1982 p. 222. in Wolfgang 153 Robert Gauldin, "Teaching Music Theory: The Conservatory" of Music Theory, in Journal Schmidt-Brunner zur (Ed.), 18/1 (Spring 1974) p.76. 154 Emily Ruth Brink, A Cognitive Approach to the Teaching of Aural Skills viewed as Applied Music Theory. Doctoral dissertation, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 1980. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1980 pp. 76-96. 61 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Two major distinctions are made between classroom-based methods discussed under the heading of classroom-based and programmed instruction. Although instruction also form part of programmed most of the instruction and vice versa, these two approaches were discussed separately because they represent different learning environments. They should, however, not be seen as opposites but simply as different manifestations cases, are meant to complement each other. To the researcher's which takes place merely through programmed treated as a supplement of classroom-based 4.1 instruction. knowledge, there is no teaching on the tertiary level At the majority of universities, instruction. Classroom-based instruction 4.1.1 Gestural tasks (a) Indication of pitch (b) Indication of rhythm and meter/beat (c) Indication of combined music parameters 4.1.2 Reproduction tasks (a) Vocal (b) Instrumental 4.1.3 Recognition tasks (a) Scales (b) Intervals (c) Chords (d) Cliches (e) Timbre 4.1.4 Imagination tasks 4.1.5 Reading (a) (b) (c) 4.1.6 tasks Score reading Rhythm reading Sight singing Transcription tasks (a) Traditional notation (b) Other stave systems . (c) . Non-traditional notation 4.1.7 Transposition tasks 4.1.8 Completion tasks 4.1.9 Discrepancy tasks (a) Aligning notation and sound (b) Error detection (c) Comparisons between score and different recordings 4.1.10 Description tasks 4.1.11 Aural Analysis tasks 4.1.12 Creative tasks 4.1.13 4.2 Evaluation tasks Programmed instruction 4. 2.1 Non~computer-assistedprogrammed Aural Training (NCAT) 4.2.2 Computer-assisted Aural Training (CAT) 62 of teaching which, in most programmed teaching is Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 4.1 Classroom-based instruction 4.1.1 Gestural tasks The history of gestural tasks can be traced back to 2723~2563 B.C. when Egyptian choir and orchestra leaders indicated the contour of the melody and a few rhythmical details using hand signs. This practice was called cheironomy. The purpose of these signs was to help musicians, who performed long works from memory, to remember difficult intervals. Alongside the cheironomes, other musicians helped from time to time to keep the heat and to indicate measures. ISS Whereas the use of hand signs served the purpose of "live" music notation to aid the memory during Antiquity and Early Christian Times, later developments such as the Guidonian hand, John Curwen's Tonic solfa hand signs, Peter Koch's Nil-method, and Eurhythmics of Emile Jaques-Dalcroze evolved as an instruction aid to the development of musical understanding. The rationale behind these methods is that tonal (and modal) relationships can be easily understood if they are supported by hand signs. Visual and physical motions support the development of inner hearing.1S6 Jaques-Dalcroze aimed to develop the musical thinking of the student to the point where he could perform his own feelings and thoughts without merely copying those of others. The purpose of his teaching was to help students not to say "I know", but rather "I have experienced" .IS7 A whole 1989 issue of Musik und Bildung (7/8) concentrated on the often neglected theme of music and movement. Christoph Richter stated that anthropological considerations on the corporeity of the human being will illuminate the relationship between bodily movement and music, and will reveal the importance of movement for experiencing and understanding music. It should therefore be one of the methods of Music Education (and thus of Aural Training) to acquire in order to study music through movement.1SS "The fundamental requirement is to transpose a level of comprehension gained by ali aural and temporal process to a physical account of .that comprehension in a spatial and temporal process. To demonstrate a level of structural awareness by physical gestures requires the ability to. mentally reconstruct structural ISS Hans Hickmann, "Handzeichen" in Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 5 pp. 1443-1451. IS6 Michelli Houlahan and Philip Tacka, "Sound Thinking: A Suggested Sequence for Teaching Musical Elements Based on the Philosophy of Zoltan Kodlliy for a College Music Theory Course" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 4/1 (Spring 1990) pp. 91 and 93. IS7 Emile Jaques-Dalcroze, Eurhythmics, Art and Education. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1979 pp. 50-51, 58. Original French publication in 1912. 15S Christoph Richter, "Einige Gedanken (1989) pp. 411 and 413. ZUID VerhaItnis von Musik und Bewegung" in Musik und Bildung, 7/8 63 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za elements and transpose them into the most elementary form of intelligent communication, motion. "159 Three basic physical gestural tasks can be distinguished: merely involve articulation, (a) rhythm and meter representation, that of physical tasks which merely involve pitch representation, and tasks involving a combination of pitch, tasks which rhythm, meter, texture and harmony. Indication The indication of pitch of pitch by means of hand signs often takes place within sight singing classes. While students are singing from sight, accompanying indication can be determined, hand signs for the sung tones are performed. Two different forms of pitch namely relative (moveable doh) and absolute pitch (fixed doh) based hand signs. The relative pitch hand signs always occur in relation to different solmization practices which are discussed in section 4.1.5 (c), whereas the absolute pitch hand signs often occur in connection with the musical stave. In the relative pitch domain the Guidonian hand, developed in the Middle Ages and associated with the hexachord system, is one of the milestones in the development attributed to Guido of Arezzo (995-1050?), of pitch-related hand signs. Although the Guidonian hand is its development supposedly took place after Guido's death. It is doubtful if the Guidonian hand was ever used in musical practice. There is also reason to believe that the use of hands for showing calendar computations, Although tetrachords and the position of semi tones was known before the Guidonian hand. 160 its use was not common practice, incorporation Rosemary Killam reported about one thousand years later on the of the Guidonian hand in her modal counterpoint classes based on sixteenth-century sacred music. She maintained that solmization and the Guidonian hand, amongst other things, assisted students in performance practices and provided insight into the solution of some of the problems of ficta.161 In this period of one thousand years, solmization practices and the accompanying hand signs underwent changes. As it is not the aim of this chapter to describe fully all the different historical manifestations many and nuances of Aural Training, only highlights will be lifted out. After Guido, solmization and hand signs developed into the heptaand octochord. Some of these changes were improvements different syllables. Ramis de Pareja (1440-1491), of Guido's system, whereas others made use of totally for example, made use of the principle of the Guidonian hand in connection with the syllables psal-li-tur per vo-ces is-cas, which were arranged in different positions on the hand. Although Georg Lange, Dietrich Stoverock, Andrew Hughes, Edith Gerson-Kiwi, Hans Hickmann as well as Martin Ruhnke referred to many different developments of solmization systems in Europe between ca. 1200 and 1800, they did not mention whether these methods included hand signs or not. 159 Emily Ruth Brink, A Cognitive Approach to the Teaching of Aural Skills viewed as Applied Music Theory. Doctoral dissertation, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 1980. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1980 p. 76. 160 Andrew Hughes and Edith Gerson-Kiwi, Musicians, 17 pp. 459 and 463. "Solmization" in The New Grove 161 Rosemary Killam, "Solmization with the Guidonian Hand: AHistorical Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 2/2 (Fall 1988) p. 266. 64 Dictionary of Music Introduction to Modal Counterpoint" and in Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za The next important phase of relative solmization can be seen in the Tonic doh method with its hand signs developed by Sarah Glover (1785-1867) their accompanying and John Curwen (1816-1880). hand signs were developed Through the years different solmization or derived from Curwen's method. systems with In 1897 Agnes- Hundoegger adapted their system for his Tonika-Do method, in which each syllable had a different character (e.g. doh is firm and stable, soh is brighter and more lively),162 Other examples are: TO-major of Hermann Jaedicke (1928), Zoltan Koddly's revised Curwen hand signs (1944), 163 losef Wentz's adaptations of Curwen's tonic doh (1950)164 and the la-Ie hand signs of Richard Miinnich (1959).165 Parallel to. the development of solmization in the eighteenth century, relative number systems were developed section 4.1.5 (c)). Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Thomascik (1790-1875), lines and spaces of the stave. Modulations (see for example, combined the hand with the five were treated in the same way as in other relative systems: the first line always indicating the new tonic. Students had to touch the fmgers involved. Friedrich Frobel (1782-1852) developed his "finger piano". The left hand represented the piano keys while the right hand "played" songs on it in which the pitches were represented by numbers.166 Absolute pitch indication by means of the fingers of the hand was introduced by, amongst others, Nina d' Aubigny von Engelbrunner in 1803. She associated the five fingers of the hand with the stave. Students were to point at their fmgers when singing on note names, indicating the lines and spaces involved. Other persons who used variations of the "stave-hand" were: Johann August Giinther Heinroth (1780-1846), Joseph Mainzer (1807-1851). Theodor Krause (1833-1910) Guillaume Louis Bocquillon (1782-1842) and introduced the "walking" note. With a paper note on a stick, students had to indicate on a stave which tones they were singing,167 Finally, Peter Koch introduced the Nu- indications of semitones and whole tones in 1972,168 Beverly Ann Martin investigated the effectiveness of echoing melodic patterns using tonal syllables without visual aids, in comparison to echoing melodic patterns that employ hand signs, or both hand signs and tonal syllable names written on paper. Her target group was first-grade students in the United States of America. No method was found to be significantly better than the others. Martin, however, 162 Agnes Hundoegger, 163 Leitfaden explained that the chosen tasks were far too difficult for der Tonika-Do-Lehre. Berlin: Tonika-Do, 1925 p. 12. Lois Choksy, The Kodaly Context: Creating an Environment for Musical Learning. Englewooq Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1981 pp. 9-10. No specific reference was made to the use of hand signs by KodaIy in his writings. They first appeared in a book written by Jeno Adam at KodaIy's request. 164 Dietrich Stoverock, 32-25. Gehiirbildung - Geschichte 165 Richard Miinnich, Jale - Ein Beitrag Moseler, 1959 pp. 17-23. 166 Hans Fischer (Ed.), Handbuch 167 Dietrich Stoverock, 31. zur Tonsilbenfrage der Musikerziehung. Gehiirbildung 168 Peter Koch, blattlesen und Methode. - Geschichte Wilhelmshaven: und zur Schulmusikpropadeutik. Berlin: Rembrandt, und Methode. in der schule - die nii-methode. 65 Heinrichshofen, 1978 pp. 22, Wolfenbiittel: 1954 pp. 51-52. Wilhelmshaven: Heinrichshofen, Vienna: Universal Edition, 1972 p. 25. 1978 pp. 28- Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za first-grade students. It is therefore not possible to provide any statistical evidence in favour of/or against the use of hand signs.169 (b) Indication of rhythm and meter/beat The indication of rhythm and meter by means of physical movement can take place by acting upon what was heard without the presence of notation, or can happen as the reaction to reading music notation. Music symbols are translated into physical gestures in the same way that symbols are translated into pitches and rhythms in other reading tasks. Although the second form of rhythm and meter indication also belongs to the rhythm reading category, it will be discussed in the gestural tasks category. Roger Graybill defined rhythm as a flow of energy through time, often associated with physical movement. He dis- tinguished between attack point rhythm and gestural rhythm. Attack-point rhythm is a succession of durations either abstracted from, or implying the presence of, discrete elements. Although gestural rhythm includes attack point rhythm, not only the measurement of discrete musical elements is involved, but also the continuous dynamic flow through these elements. 170 Rhythms can thus, on the one hand, be translated into attack point physical movements without paying attention to the rhythmical (musical) context and structure. Examples of this approach can be seen in the Hundoegger for note values ,171 and in the Thomascik bodily representations hand signs of different beat divisions (e.g., eighth notes should be tapped with the right hand, quarter notes with the left hand, half notes should be marched with the feet, and whole notes should be indicated with the head.)I72 Gestural rhythm on the other hand, implies the translation of rhythms into physical movements on a more holistic level, paying attention to the musical context. Graybill provided a theoretical foundation of gestural rhythm, taking into consideration the eurhythmic pedagogy of Jaques-Dalcroze dahl and Jackendoff. and the rhythm theories of Benjamin as well as Ler- As this theoretical foundation is important for all forms of rhythmic training, including rhythm reading as discussed in section 4.1.5 (b), it is worthwhile to take a closer look at it. In Graybill's theory two essential theoretical concepts are discussed, namely grouping principles and the difference between phenomenal and metrical accent. Graybill defined a gesture as "any meaningful musical unit conceived as having continuity and dynamic shape." He pointed out that a gesture has much in common with the notion of a group. In the same way as elements or events are 169 Beverly Ann Martin, The Effect of Hand Signs, Vet;bal Tonal Syllables, and Letter Representations of Tonal Syllables on the Verbal and Symbolic Acquisition of Tonal Skills by First-Grade Students. Doctoral dissertation, University of Oklahoma 1987. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1987. 170 Roger Graybill, "Towards (Spring 1990) pp. 1-2. 171 Agnes Hundoegger, a Pedagogy of Gestural Rhythm" in Journal Leitfaden der Tonika-Do-Lehre. Berlin: Tonika-Do, 172 Hans Fischer (Ed.), Handbuch der Musikerziehung. Berlin: Rembrandt, 66 of Music Theory 1925 p. 31. 1954 p. 51. Pedagogy, 4/1 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za "chunked" into groups, the boundaries of any particular gesture of two or more notes will also mark the boundaries of a group. He continued that a gesture is, however, more than just a musical segment also but has by deftnition a dynamic shape. This basically is an intensity outline emanating from any musical element (or combination of elements) that is able to produce varying degrees of intensity, such as dynamics, timbre, articulation, pitch contour or durational pattern. Quoting Lerdahl and Jackendoff, Graybill demonstrated, for example, that a relatively long note in an immediate context will tend to be the last of a group. He also illustrated how pitch contour (direction of the line and interval size) can influence dynamic shape (intensity). Referring to the fact that the dynamic shape of any gesture leads to, and/or comes from a primary point of accent, Graybill described a phenomenal accent as any audible musical event that emphasises a moment in musical flow. It is a point of focus that helps to shape the continuity. The metrical accent in which the beat plays the important role is, on the contrary, not always an audible event and it can be overruled by the phenomenal accent. The listener is able to construct a metrical hierarchy if just enough information is provided, even though phenomenal accents may occasionally fail to reinforce it. The following example demonstrates how the contour fails to reinforce the fourth beat: Fig. 2.4 Graybill: Example of how contour fails to reinforce the fourth beat Finally Graybill discussed several levels of gestures which he called gestural hierarchy. He pointed out that any passage of music will contain gestural shapes at several levels, and that a convincing performance of such a passage depends on balancing the various levels to the extent of giving each unit its proper meaning within the overall hierarchy. An example of such a hierarchy appears in the following phrase: Fig. 2.5 Graybill: Example of gestural hierarchy According to Graybill, it is possible to start with purely durational exercises where other parameters are absent, because rhythmic patterns which contain durational differences and/or rests will imply groupings, as well as a deftned gestural.contour. He, however, saw this only as an introductory level after which pitch, dynamic level, phrasing and articulation should be included. In the ftrst stage of rhythmic training, students should start with conducting simple meter because metrical structure can be shown in a gestural way. Graybill referred to the Jaques-Dalcroze classiftcation of beats as crusis (release of energy), metacrusis (gentle carryover of energy or a dying away) and anacrusis (preparation of energy for release). Conducting patterns can illustrate these different beat qualities effectively: "The arm shows the anacrusis with an upward thrust. Since this motion traces a trajectory against gravity, it represents a building-up of potential energy that awaits release. Such release is provided by the subsequent dropping of the arm for the crusis, which should feel like an inevitable consequence of the 67 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za anacrusic preparation. Since the falling of the arm is assisted by gravity, we associate the bottom of that fall - i.e. the ictus - with a feeling of weight. The following metacrusis beat(s) feel relatively neutral in comparison to the anacrusis and crusis, though the outward thrust of beat three in four-four (or beat two in three-four) feels like a preparation for the lift of the forthcoming anacrusis. In this respect, the metacrusis is not merely a dying away as suggested by Dalcroze, but also a gathering of energy. "173 He recommended the walking of meter for students who have problems with conducting. When students are able to accomplish this, they should learn to conduct different kinds of musical character (e.g. staccato, marcato, intense legato, a more floating legato) in response to music played for them, because it enables them to examine the expressive possibilities of physical gesture. During the next stage of rhythmical training work in gestural grouping can start. Graybill wrote a pilot text containing thirteen units for a freshman theory course at the University of Texas, Austin. Each of the thirteen units focused on a particular duration unit or a rhythmic topic. Each unit was subdivided into three parts: short formulaic patterns, longer durational exercises in which the formulaic patterns were placed within a larger context and, finally, actual melodies to investigate the effect of pitch structure, dynamic markings and articulation on gestural shape. In order to help students to understand and experience gestural grouping, physical gestures can be introduced at this point. Graybill distinguished three basic categories of physical gestures in which movement takes place within the rhythm reading realm. In the first category each note of the pattern is given its own individual subgesture , while including these subgestures within a larger gestural progression. This can be done through clapping, or walking a rhythm with alternating feet. He recommended that the student step forward on a downbeat (unless a rest appears on that point) and step the other notes of the measure in place directly under the torso. Rests should not be stepped but may be indicated with a snap of the fmgers. The second category showed the gestural shape of the group as a whole without performing the individual notes with subgestures. Patterns in triple meter can, for example, be illustrated with a large circular motion of the arm, with a new circle beginning at the start of every new measure. If no string grouping (e.g. as in a succession of equal note values) appears; this non-grouping is shown by the arm moving through the circle with a constant speed. If grouping arises through durational differences, the arm should change speed within each circular motion. Examples of nongrouping and grouping are as follows: 173 Roger Graybill, "Towards a Pedagogy of Gestural Rhythm" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 4/1 (Spring 1990) p. 18. 68 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Fig. 2.6 Graybill: Example of non-grouping and grouping gestures a. t~ •.••. f /' OD. circular moUOD witll st.a4y y.loclty b. ~~ch •.••. f /' OD. drca1ar moUOD. atartlJlg a10wty but faWllg WltIl momutIIJII at til•••• 4 c. ~~ fJld fJld fJ)cJ, •.••. f /' _. a. (b). but wttll ar.atel" dlUer •• Uatioll fa til. paclag Pendulum movements can be used for portraying dotted rhythms. For any value longer than a beat the technique of clapping the attack and then slowly pulling the hands apart as if pulling against a resistance should be used to show the full duration. In the third category of physical gesture a specific level of the metrical hierarchy, for instance the beat or some subdivision of the beat, was shown. Against this repeated motion, the actual rhythm is spoken or portrayed by another part of the body. The student might, for example, sway from side to side with bent knees to show the dotted quarter pulse, while intoning a durational pattern in compound meter.l74 (c) Indication of combined music parameters The combination of music parameters expressed through body movements can best be illustrated by JaquesDalcroze's method which contains three interrelated subjects: Aural Training, Improvisation and Eurhythmics. At first students simply have to walk to improvised music, following the different tempi and shadings. These basic movements gradually develop to include all elements of music: note-values, measures, rhythmic patterns, phrases, polyrhythms , group work and conducting, improvisation. Students have to invent rhythms to perform them physically, melodically, to change, to develop, to write and read them. Learning and creating processes constantly interact. The interpretation of compositions through spontaneously improvised movement, portraying different musical elements, forms an advanced level of Eurhythmics.175 Irwin Spector reported that Jaques-Dalcroze once assigned Beethoven's Eighth Symphony for study. Each student had to learn an instrumental part from memory and learn to sing it. The score was then assembled in class and the symphony performed by singing. He later used the 174 Roger Graybill, "Towards a Pedagogy of Gestural Rhythm" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 4/1 (Spring 1990) pp'. 4-33. 175 Henrietta Rosenstrauch, Essays on Rhythm Music Movement. Pittsburgh: Volkwein, [n.d.] p. 9-11. 69 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za same idea with body movement, each instrumental part being performed bodily instead of being sung.176 4.1.2 Reproduction tasks This method is one of the oldest forms of teaching music. Before the development of music notation, musicians learned their music parts by rote. It is important to note that there is a difference between imitation and reproduction. It is possible to repeat a sentence in a foreign language without being aware of its meaning. In the same way it is possible to imitate vocally what was heard without understanding reproduced, the ability to reconstruct mentally is required. Reproduction the musical structure. But when a musical phrase is (analyse) structural elements mentally and perform them vocally or instru- of what was heard should include exact pitch, rhythm, dynamics and even timbre in the case of a simple melody. In the case of a more complex melody, general traits should be reproduced.177 Reproduction tasks are a prerequisite for creative tasks. Although the principle of reproduction is as old as music itself, the incorporation of it into Aural Training classes has often been neglected in the twentieth century. (a) Vocal Apart from the vocal reproduction in the same register as played, Giildenstein suggested that students vocally repeat two to five tones played in different octave registers within the range of one octave.178 Thackray also recommended the closest possible pitch and duration reproduction of 'sounds of everyday life' such as car horns, bird calls, bells, etc.179 ~) Instrunnental Instrumental reproduction of what was heard can take place on every instrument, by ear.' Michael David Wilder called this skill 'ear-to-hand coordination', and is also referred to as 'playing and defined it as the skill employed to transfer what is heard, imagined, or recalled to a musical performance without the use of music notation.180 176 Irwin Spector, Rhythm and Life - The work of Emile Jaques-Dalcroze. Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon, 1990 p. 95. 177 Emily Ruth Brink, A Cognitive Approach to the Teaching of Aural Skills viewed as Applied Music Theory. Doctoral dissertation, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 1980. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1980 pp. 79-80. 178 Gustav Giildenstein, GehOrbiidung 179 Rupert Thackray, "Some Thoughts October 1975 p. 28. 180 fUr Musiker - Ein Lehrbuch. on Aural Training" Basel: Schwabe, 1971 p. 28. in The Australian Journal of Music Education, Michael David Wilder, An Investigation of the Relationship between Melodic Ear-to-Hand Coordination and Written Aural Theory Skills within an Undergraduate Music Theory Context. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Michigan 1988. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1988 p. 12. 70 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Instrumental reproduction an aid to the ramification restricted performer. develops the ability to recognise tonal-rhythmical of inner hearing, and an essential skill for developing Without ear-to-hand co-ordination, is also a way of demonstrating patterns before reproducing them. It is above the level of the repertoire performances tend to be a sophisticated form of typing.l81 It aural comprehension. Although the details of instrumental reproduction are dependent on the musical material that is used, Per-Gunnar Alldahl described a few basic principles of this method of which anything can be the basis for reproduction: rhythm, melody, harmony, musical phrasing, etc. He recommended that the reproduction should be taught as a continuous dialogue between teacher and student. The teacher first plays a phrase, after which the student immediately in the same tempo and pulse. Apart from other instructors such as Hubert Haas who recommended of problem areas,182 Alldahl suggested repeats it a verbal analysis that not a word should be uttered until the student gives the 'correct' response. According to him too much psychological energy would be wasted by stopping. The teacher should rather break down the 'goal phrase' into sufficiently simple components so that the student never gives the wrong 'answer'. He, however, warned against playing mechanically the first two notes, then the first three, and so forth. The musical material should be restructured in small but significant musical entities in manageable portions. made by more simplified repetitions. 'Corrections' Care should be taken that the student's answer is rhythmically are well articulated. The following example was used to demonstrate these principles:183 Fig. 2.7 Alldahl: Example of a reproduction task Musical phrase to be reproduced: ~J ,i r Reconstruction ,~U I II CO J. ), ImfpfJ=EI Bach, Trio Sonata III -.- of material: _& al f) bl . cl d) J. II I g) c) e::trbff2@--J II h) il) t~F&--~~I,:u k) m) l) nl ~~'-~W-~T~ ~ 181 182 -,- -Ir pI ~'J J!~--=j -,- James O. Froseth as quoted by Michael David Wilder, An Investigation of the Relationship between Melodic Ear-to-Hand Coordination and Written Aural Theory Skills within an Undergraduate Music Theory Context. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Michigan 1988. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1988 p. 4. Observations by the researcher of the teaching of Prof. Hubert H:ias at the Staatliehe Hoehsehule fUr Musik und Darstellende Kunst Stuttgart. He also mentioned in an interview (18 January 1989) that it is important that the student does not play until he knows what to play. The purpose of playing-by-ear is to indicate the extent to which the musical example was structurally comprehended. If a student risks playing before analyzing (often in a verbal form) the musical structure, and it is wrong, this wrongly played phrase distorts the correct phrase that was saved in the short-term memory. 183 Per-Gunnar Alldahl, "Teaching Music Theory: The European Conservatory" (Spring 1974) pp. 119-121. 71 in Journal of Music Theory, 18/1 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Several authors have objected to the fact that little attention is given to this important technique. Thomas Walker Brown maintained that this skill is considered by many to be a purely "bestowed" skill and unamenable to training. He designed and evaluated a one-semester undergraduate course in aural skills development which incorporated playing by ear as well as traditional approaches. Many instructional activities proved to be effective, but the students found playing songs by ear the most meaningful and enjoyable course experience.lS4 These results correspond with students' attitudes as investigated by James 0' Froseth. Ninety-one percent indicated that instrumental reproduction instruction improved the recognition of intervals, 63 % indicated the improvement of dictation skills, and 60 % indicated an increase in improvisation skills. ISSA significant relationship between Sight reading and Playing by ear was found by John R. Luce. He recommended that methods for teaching playing by ear should be devised, spending as much time in teaching it as in Sight reading.lS6 Michael David Wilder investigated the relationships between ear-to-hand co-ordination and written and aural music theory skills amongst first-year students. His conclusions were that melodic ear-to-hand co-ordination (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) is highly correlated with aural music theory skills; is an effective predictor of success in introductory freshman aural music theory classes; can be improved through practice and training; skills are effectively retained over time; retention is greater for aural music theory skills than for written music theory skills as measured by a fmal written music theory examination.lS7 4.1.3 Recognition tasks The ability to recognise elements and small structures by labelling forms the lowest level of cognitive thinking according to Bloom et al. and Cawood et al.lSS Aural recognition tasks are passive in their nature, because musical elements and structures have to be labelled as opposed to gestural, reading, reproduction, completion and production tasks, which involve some kind of action such as clapping, singing, etc. Recognition tasks are often combined with active tasks, for example, not only to recognise certain intervals but to also sing them. Because of the intertwined . nature of all Aural Training methods, it often is the case that the ability to recognise musical elements or musical IS4 Thomas Walker Brown, "An Investigation of the Effectiveness of a Piano Course in Playing by Ear and Aural Skills Development for College Students" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 51/12 (June 1991) pp. 4052-A - 4053-A. ISS James b. Froseth as quoted by Michael David Wilder, An Investigation of the Relationship between Melodic Ear-to-Hand Coordination and Written Aural Theory Skills within an Undergraduate Music Theory Context. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Michigan 1988. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1988 p. 5. IS6 John R. Luce, "Sight-Reading and Ear-Playing Abilities as Related to Instrumental Music Students" in Journal of Research in Music Education, 13/2 (Summer 1965) p. 108. IS7 Michael David Wilder, An Investigation of the Relationship between Melodic Ear-to-Hand Coordination and Written Aural Theory Skills within an Undergraduate Music Theory Context. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Michigan 1988. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1988 p. 124. ISS Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives - The Classification of Education Goals, Handbook II. New York: David McKay, 1964 pp. 186-193. J. Cawood, F.B. Muller and J.F.A. Swartz, Grondbeginsels van die didaktiek. Goodwood: National Educational Press, 1982 p. 58. . 72 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za structures depends on singing/clapping/producing (a) them.189 Scales KUhn stated that the inclusion of scales in the Aural Training syllabus serves the purpose of developing intonation skills and inner hearing.l90 Apart from naming different scales and modi when heard, "hidden" scale movements can also be recognised in played melodies. The recognition of different scales can furthermore be combined with prepared notation in which the student has to add the correct key signatures/accidentals.191 According to KUhn, the labelling process can be reversed in that students create their own scales and then play/sing them. Thackray suggested the collection of different percussion instruments and arranging them firstly, in order of ascending pitch and secondly, order of increasing resonance. He furthermore in enCburaged the tuning of eight glasses to a scale in for example the Dorian mode by adding the right amount of water to each of them. 192 (b) Intervals The study of melodic and harmonic intervals can be treated within a musical context or isolated from it. In both approaches, the order of intervals to be recognised (interval size) can be either predetermined The predetermined or randomly selected. ordering of intervals, starting first with diatonic intervals from the major scale in the systematic order of seconds, thirds, fourths, etc., is a popular practice in a variety of Aural Training books.193 In some texts chains of intervals are built (e.g. seconds, fourths) which have to be recognised as well as sung. Often other methods such as notation and sight singing will also concentrate on a particular interval alongside the recognition of this inter- val.194 Interval knowledge can be applied to create melodies consisting mainly of seconds, fourths, etc. A second voice can be improvised, consisting mainly of thirds or sixths. 189 Janet McLoud McGaughey, Practical Ear Training. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1966 p. 61. 190 Clemens KUhn, GehOrbiidung im Selbststudium. Kassel: Biirenreiter, 1983 pp. 26-28. 191 Hermann Sprenger, Methodik der GehOrbiidung. Unpublished manuscript, 192 Rupert Thackray, "Some Thoughts October 1975 p. 28. 193 on Aural Training" [n.d.] p. 24. in The Australian Journal of Music Education, M.E. van Ebbenhorst Tengbergen and L.S. Maare, Solfeges. Amsterdam: Broekmans and Van Poppel, [n.d.]. Leo Horacek and Gerald Lefkoff, Programed Ear Training, Vol. I. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1970. Some authors saw the study of intervals as a way to deal with both tonal and atonal music. Ronald Herder is an example of this school of thinking. He treated intervals within the context of a tonal melody and gradually transformed it by means "of chromatic alterations into an atonal melody. Although Herder described tonality "as tending to gravitate toward a central point, tending to seek a focal point or 'home' tone where energies come to rest, thus pointing to inner relationships," he based his method on the recognition of different intervals, starting with the smallest diatonic interval, the minor second. This progressively works towards the octave. Ronald Herder, Tonal/Atonal progressive Ear Training, Singing and Dictation Studies in Diatonic, Chromatic, and Aton"al Music. New York: Continuo Music Press, 1973 pp. v and xvii. 194 Roland Mackamul, 1969 pp. 31-35. Lehrbuch der GehOrbiidung - Band 1, Elementare 73 GehOrbiidung. Kassel: Biirenreiter, Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Another approach to the systematic teaching of intervals is to determine different levels of interval acquisition. Quistorp first grouped the perfect intervals (I, IV, V and VIII) together, then major and minor II, III VI and VII, followed by a third group of chromatic and enharmonic intervals.195 Blombach and Parrish referred to the six levels of difficulty as formulated by Spohn and Poland: Level 1M2, Level II m2, Level III m3, Level IV m2, Level V m3, Level VI m2, P4, M7, P8 M3, TT (Tritone), M6 P5, m6, m7 M2, P4, M7, P8 TT, P5, M6, m7 M2, m3, M3, P4, TT, P5, m6, M6, m7 M7, P8 (all intervals)196 Both Blombach et al. and Spohn et al. found the tritone, minor sixth and minor seventh to be the most difficult intervals to recognise, and provided tables of "confused" intervals, in which the "confusions" between intervals appeared as percentages. Examples of general mistakes that appeared were furthermore described by Sprenger: the highest and lowest tones are inverted, thus hearing the complementary interval; completion of the interval by the ear to a triad, hearing this imagined tone as part of the interval with the result of wrongly recognizing e-g as a major third in the context of a C major triad. He also recommended the development of attaching characteristic attributes to intervals. Although words cannot fully describe intervals, he gave a few examples such as: Perfect prime: basis, content, balance; minor second - filled with tension, leans towards the prime; perfect fourth: clear, pushing against a border; etc.l97 The often used method of developing interval acquisition with the aid of the beginning intervals of songs or other musical works was sharply criticised by KUhn. Although it can be helpful for the recognition of isolated intervals, this procedure is not applicable to intervals within a musical context. The influence of the musical context on interval recognition was described by Allen R. Trubitt and Robert S. Hines as "the illusion of expanding and contracting distance between intervals in certain melodic sequences." When, for instance, recognizing or singing whole tones within a whole tone scale, there is the illusion that the further one moves away from the first two whole tones, the wider apart the pitches become.198 As a way of developing tonal contextual thinking, several authors recommended the teaching of intervals with their "solutions". Although the interval is presented in an isolated form, students are taught to mentally imagine the next interval to which the first one leads, as if in a mini-musical context. Grabner, KUhn, Giildenstein and Illman are all examples of authors who 195 Monika Quistorp, Die Gehorbildung - Das Kernfach musikalischer Erziehung. Wiesbaden: Breitkopf and Hartel, 1979 p. 22. . 196 Spohn and Poland as quoted by Ann K. Blombach and Regena T. Parrish, "Acquiring Aural Interval Identification Skills: Random vs Ordered Grouping" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 2/1 (Spring 1988) p. 116. 197 Hermann Sprenger, Methodik der GehOrbiidung. Unpublished manuscript, [n.d.] pp. 17 and 21. 198 Allen R. Trubitt and Robert S. Hines, Ear Training and Sight-Singing: An Integrated Approach, Book I. New York: Schirmer Books, 1979 pp. 31-32. 74 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za made use of this method.199 Another form of interval thinking within a tonal context can be seen in the punctual recognition of intervals in relation to the tonic. A row of approximately ten pitches is played and the student has to name these pitches by always mentally comparing them with the tonic.200 Grabner further recommended a broader interval recognition within a musical context as a form of concentration exercise. A musical motive is played after which a melody in which the motive appears is played. The student has to indicate when the motive appears either unchanged, or as a sequence, or in a changed form (e.g. inversion). Another assignment can be to recognise all fifths, tritones etc. in the played melody. Kraft advised recognizing the highest and lowest pitches within a musical phrase.201 The use of "dyads" (a harmonic unit consisting of two tones) as the twentieth century answer to diatonic intervals in tonal music was presented by Friedmann. In this complex system intervals are freed from tonal associations such as consonant and dissonant in that clinical numerical names for pitches, pitch classes and the various types of interval are used. Whereas, for example, the major second in tonal music is associated with tension and dissonance, the same interval in atonal music can have a different character which is articulated through the context of rhythm, timbre and contour particular to a given composition. Recognition tasks of dyads can, for example, be to identify the nip mod 12(n), i(n) and ip(n)" after a two-pitch dyad is heard. Friedmann advised students to work simultaneously on a "calisthenic" level while acquainting themselves with this highly structured approach to Aural Training. A calisthenic exercise would be, after hearing a melody several times, to attempt to sing all pairs of pitches separated by a wholestep or less, and to sing them before and after singing the whole melody.202 199 Hermann Grabner, Neue GehOriibung. Berlin: Max Hesses, 1962 pp. 15 and 31. Clemens KUhn, GehOrbiidung im Selbststudium. Kassel: Barenreiter, 1983 pp. 24-25. Gustav Giildenstein, GehOrbiidung ffir Musiker - Ein Lehrbuch. Basel: Schwabe, 1971 p. 160. Michael Illman, Systematic Aural Training - Teacher's book. London: Longman, 1974 p. 67. 200 The researcher observed this method as used by Ursula Flinspach at the Staatliche Hochschule fUr Musik und Darstellende Kunst Stuttgan. 201 Leo Kraft, A New Approach to Ear Training - A Programed Course in Melodic Dictation. New York: W.W. Norton, 1967 Unit one, Lesson AA. 202 Michael L. Friedmann, Ear Training for Twentieth Century Music. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990 pp.4-22. Definitions: Pitch, p. 9: "A pitch is the specific fundamental defined on the staff, as played by instrumentalists and sung by singers. A pitch name yields no information about timbre, dynamics, duration, function, or inflection. It does however defme the approximate frequency of a fundamental tone, and therefore its octave placement. If we assign numbers to pitches, middle C (below the treble clef and above the bass clef) can be called O. Pitches above middle C are given positive numerical values (+n) and pitches below middle C negative values (_ n) according to their distance in half-steps from middle C." Pitch class, p. 13: "Pitch class is a numerical name for a category of pitches '" with the same sound, separated by twelve semitones, or separated by any multiple of twelve semitones. There are twelve possible pitch classes, numbered from 0 to 11. Two possible numbering systems can be useful: one where C is called 0, the other where a pitch central to a given piece is 0." 75 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za (c) Chords In this category various types of triads, seventh chords, trichords and other twentieth-century recognised aurally. Whereas triads and seventh chords normally chord models can be operate within the tonal sphere, the latter two represent the atonal domain. As with intervals, the study of chords can take place within or isolated from the musical context. The treatment of triads and seventh chords isolated from the musical context can be seen in the following example. A single tone is played and named. A chord is played, based on this tone, and the student has to name the chord. Another form of this method is to sing the chord, or play it on a keyboard instrument.203 The principle of chaining chords was demonstrated Fig. 2.8 by Kiihn:204 Kiihn: Example of the principle of chaining chords is a a 4 h" I Recognitions ~"'it5 I" • "~G of the inversions of triads and dominant seventh chords that can all be built on one central tone, was also demonstrated by Kiihn as a way of preparing students to recognise modulations in examples from the music literature: Fig. 2.9 Kiihn: Example of preparatory modulation exercises This exercise of Kiihn can be compared with the "encounter" exercises devised by Paul Loeb van Zuilenburg. In these all the different dominant seventh chords (also taking into account inversions) that can be built on the note C, followed etc.2os by their solutions, As a way of preparing musical context), Shumway, should be recognised of keyboard harmony C-Eb-Gb-Ab/Ab-F-Db-Db; into Aural Training plays an important role. Stanley addressed six areas in his keyboard harmony teaching method, namely typical settings, 203 Christoph Hempel, Gehorbildung rich Moseler, 1976 p. 17. 204 Clemens Kiihn, Gehorbildung 205 C-E-G-Bb/A-F-F-C; for the recognition of functional hearing (recognition of chords and their functions within a the incorporation for example, or sung. E.g.: Paul Loeb van Zuilenburg, - Anleitung im Selbststudium. Gehoortoetse und Material fUr das gemeinsame Kassel: Barenreiter, en Gehooropleiding 76 Uben. Ziirich: Karl Hein- 1983 pp. 29-30. - 'n Inleiding. Stellenbosch: Cabo, [n.d.] p. 24. Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za phrases with figured bass, melody harmonizations, melody improvisation, accompaniment patterns, as well as melody and accompaniment.206 Theodore Alexander Haendschke observed the following general mistakes that occurred in functional hearing: a II6 chord in a major key was often mistaken for a IV. A major triad instead of a minor triad was heard, simply because the lowest note of the II6 chord was the fourth scale step. Another error of this kind occurred in that a V6/5 was mistaken for a VII7, thus identifying a major-minor seventh as a diminished seventh. Other errors were the misinterpretation of a 117as a II, and of a V7 as a V. Haendschke used these examples of frequent errors as an argument for developing a concentrated course in the recognition of various types of c~ords. He discussed fifteen types of chords within the context of examples from the music literature (Bach to Debussy).207 Regarding atonal music, several attempts have been made to define paradigm structures. Lars Edlund.treated different combinations of intervals within the musical context of the melody. He identified certain melodic patterns typical to the music from the first half of the twentieth century, and presented various chord combinations at the end of each chapter.20S Haas and Karkoschka criticised the approach often used in traditional Aural Training to teach atonal music from an interval approach, ignoring the perception of complex dissonant sounds as a whole. They emphasised general sound qualities (the estimated distance between tones - does the middle tone appear nearer to the upper or lower tone?), the number of tones within a "chord"/cluster and the general sound tension, as well as the identification of typical twentieth-century sounds such as clusters or chords consisting merely of fourths.209 The theory of pitch and pitch classes as the twentieth-century equivalent for tonal music has also infiltrated the teaching of Aural Training, as was explained under the previous heading. Based on the same principles as dyads, trichords (any set of three pitch classes, ordered or unordered) are used as the complement of triads. In this new perspective on interval structure, intervals are musical 'spaces' that may be partitioned in.a variety of ways. Whereas tonal intervals are constructed by means of the diatonic step, atonal intervals are presented according to the semitones involved. There are twelve distinct trichord types. Each trichord type represents a set of four to twenty-four trichords to which it is related by transposition and inversion. Inversions in this case implies that two structures are mirror 206 Stanley Shumway, Hannony and Ear Training at the Keyboard. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm.C. Brown, 1976. 207 Theodore Alexander Haendschke, The aural University of Texas, 1955 pp. 5-10. recognition of sonorities. Unpublished Master's thesis, 20S Lars Edlund, Modus Novus - Studies in Reading Atonal Melodies. London: J. and W. Chester, 1963. 209 Hubert Haas and Erhard Karkoschka, neue musik horen - Eine Horerziehung mit neuer Musik in Theorie und Praxis. Rohrdorf: Rohrdorf, 1981 p. 10. 77 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za images of each other. In the following Table, the prime form (in both pitch class integers and staff notation) as well as the interval content in semi tones are presented:21O Table 2.2 The twelve trichords T"irhord ~I-~ @S ((JIIlrn' in srmilOIl(,S b'. b. •• b. :- b. • •• I. I. 2 "j. & .. .. .. .. ;u @ 0...1-1 0-1-5 O-l...{j .. ~. 0-2-5 I, 5. 6 2. ~. .; W ~I-~ , @ V ~2-4 11lfrn'nl Exnlll/,ie 0-2-6 I, 2. 3 0-2-7 I. ~. 4 0-3...{j I. 4. 5 0-1-7 & Aural work with trichords involves the recognition of "Rip as simultaneities. exercises improvisation exercises, @=¥. fiT < ( )> " and Other methods involve the vocal completion on symmetry, • • • . ~ ... L G • : ~ . .5. i ~. S. :- • :;4 3. ~. [, .1, -I. 7 4.4. S set class, both as melodic successions as well of trichords etc.211 Apart ~. 3 .. :' 0 S'. ~ 0--4-8 • , .. , .. .. , .. from when two tones are given, listening trichords, tetrachords, pentachords and hexachords also form part of the pitch class theory. (d) Cliches Cliches refer to certain patterns/models By learning to recognise that occur frequently in all the different musical parameters and style periods. these models aurally and visually, a certain level of musical comprehension which can aid sight reading. For example, Loeb van Zuilenburg can be reached referred to stereotype rhythmic figures e.g. word and dance rhythms such as the Sarabande, Gigue, Siciliano, Mazurka, Polonaise and Sequidilles.212 All the different scales and cadences, as well as characteristic melodic patterns, instrumentation, are related to the recognition of different style periods are also forms of cliche recognition. harmonies, etc. that Referring to music from the twentieth century, Siegfried Borris pointed out that various sound models and types can be recognised iIf relation 210 Murray J. Gould, Paths to Musical Thought - An Approach to Ear Training through York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979 pp. 270-276. Steven E. Gilbert, "An Introduction to Trichordal Analysis" in Journal of Music Theory, 338-341. 211 Michael L. Friedmann, pp.50-71. Ear Training 212 Paul Loeb van Zuilenburg, for Twentieth Gehoortoetse Sight Singing. New 18/2 (Fall 1974) pp. Century Music. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990 en Gehooropleiding 4. 78 - 'n Inleiding. Stellenbosch: Cabo, [n.d.] pp. 3- Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za to their historical development and different schools of thinking.213 (e) Timbre The recognition of timbre ranges from the wholly obvious qualities such as differentiating between instruments, the subtler difference between, for example, the lowest and highest strings of a violin, and most subtle of all, the timbral varieties that a player can present when playing a single note. Pratt et al. suggested several ways of practising timbral recognition and notation by, for example, comparing different performances of the same work. In another exercise an orchestral player should play a single note and the rest of the class should discuss what they have heard regarding the vigour and immediacy of the opening attack, the thickness and constituent harmonics of the sound, whether the instrument is muted, and so forth.214 4.1.4 Imagination tasks The sole goal of imagination tasks is to develop inner hearing which applies to all aspects of music. Developing this skill can take place with or without notation. Imagination without notation takes place when a known melody can be "heard" mentally without seeing the notation or actually hearing it. Another form of imagination without the presence of notation can be seen in students being able to sing a requested interval ~hen only the first pitch is given. Referring to imagination developed tasks which involve notation as "anticipational a few exercises programmed environment, for fostering these skills. Although hearing" and "fusing", Trubitt and Hines occurring they can easily be adapted for classroom-based within instruction. the non-computer-assisted The student has to look at a short rhythmical phrase. The first bar is heard on tape, followed by one bar of silence. During this silence the student should try to mentally imagine (anticipate) the next bar in tempo. This is followed by playing the anticipated bar for control purposes. The whole procedure is repeated until the whole rhythmical phrase is imagined. Trubitt and Hines recommended the same procedure for the mental hearing of intervals. However, during the silent bar students should also sing the tone involved. Regarding the inner hearing of harmonies, they developed a technique called "fusing" which is best described by the. following example:215 213 Siegfried Borris, "Klangbilder und Hormodelle Neue Musik und Musikerziehung Darmstadt, Merseburger, 1962 p. 72. der neuen Musik" in Veroffentlichungen Band 3: Der Wandel des musikalischen 214 George Pratt, Michael Henson and Simon Cargill, Aural Awareness - Principles Open University Press, 1990 pp. 56-65. 215 Allen R. Trubitt and Robert S. Hines, Ear Training New York: Schirmer Books, 1979 pp. 11, 19, 30. and Sight-Singing: 79 and Practice. An Integrated des Instituts fiir Horens. Berlin: Milton Keynes: Approach, Book I. Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Fig. 2.10 Trubitt and Hines: Example of a "fusing" exercise Tile tape w,lI play thi, Ycu ullmer ear" Should helllhlS. : " :J:t.===;=:;! I,. :\ lelt/le RopF antlC'Plte the Itderva dIstance NOlif fecalilhe R.P. .md anllclpate the sanerlly Old YOU"heal" 'liM? (R.P: reference pitch) Also in the same category of pitch imagination, Pratt et al. presented the following exercise: Fig. 2.11 Pratt et al.: Example of pitch imagination tasks F given: =@=? given: F image ••• r !'g • _ . sung: ;J J~ image. __•••• _ sung: Furthermore, they developed "judging speed" exercises and maintained that although the choice of speed may vary, it is valuable to be able to judge it and relate it accurately to a standard way of notation in MM (Maezel's Metronome) numbers. They presented two ways of estimating MM speeds. One is by saying briskly but without "gabbling" 'Kodak-I, Kodak-2, Kodak-3' etc. which approximately equals a half note = 60, quarter note = 120 and eight note r )Another verbalization divides one second into three: one thou-sand, two thou-sand, thus equalling a quarter note = 180. (One thou-sand = r i r ) = 240. (Kodak-l = U This skill can be practised as follows: (a) Choose an MM number, clap it, measure the accuracy against a metronome; (b) someone else sets the metronome - judge the MM number; (c) instrumentalist plays a short passage from the music repertoire. Discuss a suitable MM number for it. Experiment with different tempi and discuss their effects on the performance; (d) compare strict in-time metronome playing with exaggerated rubato playing. Discuss the musical effects. Pratt et al. also recommended the silent reading through of a simple extract of a score which is also available on 0 record. (E.g. 'Niobe No. 3 from Six Metamorphoses after Ovid for solo oboe by Benjamin Britten.) The student should try to mentally anticipate the tempo, meter and rhythms while paying attention to the subtleties of rhythmic flexibility expected from a performer to add to the relatively inflexible notation. Other elements should be taken into account only when they influence the rhythmic flow. Expectations can be discussed with other students and be marked into the score. The anticipations should finally be compared with the actual recording. If they were not realised, the student may wish to comment, both favourably and otherwise, on the performance. Another exercise on an even higher level of imagination can be to study excerpts from a score silently, paying attention to all the parameters of music. After doing so with for example the 'Prologue' from the Serenade/or Tenor, Hom and Strings by Benjamin Britten, the following questions may arise: 80 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za /'1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Did you hear a hom? If so, who was playing it? Did you mentally hear the velvet smoothness and almost legendary accuracy of Dennis Brian for whom the part was written in 1943? Or was it a rough-toned amateur performance? . How close or distant was the imagined performer? Did you find a close approximation to 'Andante (crotchet = 80)', and, within that, how far was the metre of your imagined performance sempre ad libitum? Where exactly did the metrical pulse bend and flex? How loud was the first note? How firmly was it tongued? Was the sustained third note coloured with a vibrato? If so, how wide and fast was it? How long was the first comma at the end of bar I? How smooth were the slurred intervals from bar 2 onwards? ... and so on - the range of questions is almost endless. "216 4.1.5 Reading tasks All reading tasks depend not only on the ability to imagine sound, but also enhance this ability. Whereas imagination tasks in most cases imply a form of silent reading, sound is always present in score reading, rhythm reading and sight singing. Score reading presents a passive form of reading which in effect is nothing else but a combination of recognition, imagination and reading tasks. The other forms of reading are, on the contrary, active in that students have to respond to what was read by producing sound. An abstract symbol has to be transposed into particular rhythm and pitch concepts stored in the long-term memory, that must in tum be realised vocally, instrumentally or gesturally.217 (a) Score reading As score reading depends on the ability to connect sound with notation, McLoud McGaughey designed preparatory exercises for this skill called "selective listening". The ability to identify and locate a specific rhythmic pattern or sonority in a musical context is cultivated. Not only the ability to recognise the sought element is involved, but also the ability to follow the forward motion of the musical sounds in order to locate the element. The procedure of selective listening involves prepared rosters in which the exact number or bars and beats of the musical phrase appear. While the phrase is played, the student has to move his pencil across the roster in time, placing a check mark on any beat space where he hears the rhythm pattern or sonority for which he is selectively listening.218 Robert W. Sherman and Morris H. Knight applied a different form of this principle, in that the student hears one musical phrase, sees two, and has to indicate which of the two examples represents the heard material.219 216 George Pratt, Michael Henson and Simon Cargill, Aural Awareness - Principles and Practice. Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1990 pp. 43-46, 84-85, 88. 217 Emily Ruth Brink, A Cognitive Approach to the Teaching of Aural Skills viewed as Applied Music Theory. Doctoral dissertation, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 1980. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1980 p. 95. 218 Janet McLoud McGaughey, Practical Ear Training. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1966 p. 2. 219 Robert W. Sherman and Morris H. Knight, Student Workbook for Aural Comprehension in Music Vol. 1. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1972 p. 53. 81 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za A more complex form of selective listening was developed by Walter Kral and Ivo Zopf. The student sees the following example in which there is no rhythmic or harmonic differences between the blocks A-D. Only the pitches vary slightly. An example is played which consists of variants of bars A-D and the student has to indicate the variants used for the example. Fig. 2.12 Kral and Zopf: Example of a score reading exercise ABC D 1'~I! 11 J F j. if i3 J J I f J n oj r If}1J f3 j Ed :J ;l:===g oj If:J j 3'PB E1j r Etr s mr J tJM j I r fJ j oJ If j -Qj 4~ r r Ij II 2 J et=¥\] I r 3 r II oj] When for example this melody' was played, IrTJJJI-w the answer should be: A <)J I B C 3 loJ j D 2 -- 4 Examples in which changes in other parameters appear were also presented by Kral and Zopf.220 (b) Rhythm The translation movements), reading of abstract symbols into rhythms can be realised through performing gestures (e.g. clapping, arm using rhythmic syllables, word rhythms and intoning. For more detail on performing gestures see sec- tion 4.1.1 (b). Similarly to the use of pitch syllables in connection with certain pitches and intervals, rhythmic syllables are performed in relation to the reading of note values and patterns. The duration language (La Langue des durees) developed by Aime Paris (1798-1866) for the Cheve elementary school of singing is the earliest form of this method of consciously acquainting oneself with with rhythmic processes. A few examples of this approach are: a quarter note is associated with saying ta, two eighth notes with ta te, a triplet with ta te ti and four eighth notes with ta fa te fe. A whole beat is always associated with the sound a, a two division beat with a e, and a three division beat with a e i.221 220 Walter Kral and Ivo Zopf, GehOrbiidung - Lehrgang reichischer Bundesverlag, 1989 pp. 50-57. 221 Dietrich Stoverock, Gehorbildung fUr individuelles - Geschichte und Methode. 82 Selbststudium Wilhelmshaven: Band 1. Vienna: Oster- Heinrichshofen, 1978 p. 36. Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Several syllable systems based on the principles of Paris were developed through the years. Kodily, used the syllables ta ti-ti for the values quarter eighth eighth, and ti-ri-ti-ri for four sixteenth for example, notes.222 Richard Miinnich took into account the gravity points within a bar: duple time - Kai teu; triple - Kai pau teu; Quadruple - Kai teu pau teu, etc. Two groups of four sixteenth notes in duple time are for example assigned the syllables Kai ke kd ke teu re t6 te.223 Criteria for an effective syllable system in which rhythmic feeling and aural rhythm patterns can be taught were laid down by Stanley Schleuter. He recommended the use of monosyllabic syllables which are easy to speak or chant by all age groups, using related syllables for duple, triple and unusual meter. Syllables should not: • • • • duplicate those used in tonal patterns; be confused with articulation or tonguing syllables used in wind instruments; be introduced concurrently with notation; be chanted throughout entire tunes - they are intended for initial use only with pattern sounds. According to Schleuter, the system that Edwin Gordon adapted from McHose and Tibbs meets all these criteria. An example of this system can be seen in the following: Wei wish you a mer-ryl Christ-mas, wei ni 1 na fa ni fa 2 na ni An extensive description of this method appears in Schleuter's book.224 The system described by Gordon in his Learning Sequences in Music (1988), however differs, above-mentioned distinguishing adaptation, between in that the syllables usual and unusual meters. na and ni do not appear, Gordon distinguished slightly from the and no provision between is made for micro and macro beats, and designed his system so that these beats have different verbal associations,225 Numbers are never used. The syllable name for a macro beat in all usual meters is du, for micro beats du be, and for triple micro beats du da di. Gordon also devised a taxonomy of rhythm patterns in which usual and unusual duple and triple patterns were organised in an easy-to-difficult ranking order.226 Paul Schenk provided reasons for using a syllable system as opposed to the often applied counting system, using numbers and words like and: (a) Counting is often performed counting subdivision unrhythmically and unmetrically, especially values by saying and. (b) Musical phrases and bar lines often do not correspond 222 Lois Choksy, The Kodaly Context: N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1981 p. 10. 223 Richard Miinnich, Jale - Ein Beitrag Moseler, 1959 pp. 26-39. Creating an Environment zur Tonsilbenfrage for Musical Learning. und zur Schulmusikpropadeutik. 224 Stanley L. Schleuter, A Sound Approach to Teaching Instrumentalists - An Application Learning Sequences. Ohio, Kent: The Kent State University Press, 1984 pp. 58-80. when with each Englewood Cliffs, Wolfenbiittel: of Content and 225 Macro beats are equal in temporal length and receive no dynamic accent. They form the basis for micro beats and melodic rhythm. (E.g.: 2/4 two quarters.) Micro beats are shorter than macro beats and are derived from macro equal temporal division. (E.g.: 2/4 four eight notes, in groups of two.) 226 Edwin E. Gordon, Learning 129-130, 155-160,264-271. Sequences in Music - Skill, Content, 83 and Patterns. Chicago: G.I.A., 1988 pp. Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za other, in that the end of a phrase normally does not fall together with a bar line. In most cases a musical arch stretches over a few bars. When counting, a person automatically breaths in before saying one, running the danger of . destroying the musical phrase. (c) Although the beats are all similar, through counting they get a different numerical value.227 Another often used approach is the employment, of word rhythms, where rhythmical relationships are portrayed with r-3..,.., the help of colloquial words such as ap-ple. a-pri-cot = U W. The last system to be discussed is that of "intoning" rhythms. As with rhythmic syllables, this approach offers the possibility of giving an exact account of duration, accents and contour when performing rhythmic patterns and/or phrases. This is not possible when clapping or tapping a phrase. Although any syllable can be used for this task, Graybill recommended the use of the consonant d, because its attack is clear and flexible, ranging from an explosive marcato to a very gentle legato. He preferred d for legato intonements' and not l, since the latter has a less clear defmed attack. Based on his gestural rhythm theory as was described in section 4.1.1. (b), Graybill provided the following guidelines for vocal inflection: (a) A motion towards a phenomenal accent should be intoned with a rise of pitch and dynamic intensification, dynamic de-intensification while motion that forms an accent should be inflected with a descending pitch and (relaxation); (b) Gestural continuity should be expressed by the inflectional contour in that the moment of accent seems to arrive at the crest of a tonally-inflected wave. The hammering out of accents as isolated points of emphasis must be strongly discouraged; (c) Falling into an attack-point mode can be avoided at the beginning stages by using legato articulation to convey gestural continuity. Interpretational characteristics, such as light staccato or marcato, should be incorporated as soon as the rhythmic flow can be expressed fluently,228 There are many rhythm textbooks available in which rhythmic patterns are organised from easy to difficult. In most cases no indication is given as to the preferred method of rhythm reading. Two approaches to rhythm reading were determined, namely rhythm reading of short difficult,229 or an approach where combinations Ulbrich's "self-composed" exercises ordered systematically from easy to of rhythmic, melodic and harmonic elements are given. In Markus Tabellen zur Notenschrift rhythmic, melodic and harmonic patterns are presented in Tables and can be combined to form up to 1787 permutations.230 Mary Palmer and James Larry Stockton investigated the effectiveness of different methods of rhythm reading. Palmer compared the rhythm reading programmes of Mary Helen Richards, based on the Kodaly system, with the methods 227 Paul Schenk, Schule der musikalischen GehOrbiidung (Eight booklets.) Trossingen: Hohner, 1952 p. 10. 228 Roger Graybill, "Towards (Spring 1990) pp. 26-25. 229 - I. Teil: GehOrbiidung a Pedagogy of GesUlral Rhythm" in Journal Unterstufe und Musikkunde. of Music Theory Pedagogy, 4/1 F. van der Horst, Maat en Ritme, Parts I and II. Amsterdam: Broekmans and Van Poppel, [n.d.]. 230 Markus Ulbrich, Tabellen Ulbrich, 1978. zur Notenschrift - Ein Programm 84 fUr angehende Berufsmusiker. Basel: Markus Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za developed by Edwin Gordon. Although the latter appeared to be better than the Richards' method, this result was not clear-cut. 231 Stockton taught students in the experimental using rhythm syllables. Students in the control group analysed the meter components excerpts with the aid of rhythm notation. meter discrimination group to perform by rote twelve rhythmic patterns selected by him, The experimental group participants of twelve recorded music showed a greater improvement in achievement than the control group particip = 0 = ,2 '3 <> s :0 <> :0 0; <> ~ E ~ ..• e ..• ~ '8 e :0 0; e .~ ~ u ~ :!! :;:;; ••• '0 5 "" ,.; "" ,.: ••• u '0 = ". '3 <> :0 0; ••• 5 ~ ., oS l:! •• :;:;; " :c 0 "" !! .• :;; " ~ ~ u .Q LI. '0 >. E .. ~ " .c u :;:;; ~ oS e .. 's .:; ~ ., ..; Q ~ E ~ c ."• .c ~ ~ u -c: .. .. l3 .. E " "5 '0 -c: '" t: LI. ]j 0 0 '" -- 382 Wolfram Breuer, GehOrbildung - Fur Unterricht und Selbststudium. 120 ---....-.. Stuttgart: J.B. Metzler, 1990. Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Between Carlsen's reel-to-reel magnetic tape programmed instruction and Breuer's cassette-based instruction program, several other programs saw the light. The majority of programs were based on the fragmented approach, concentrating merely on written responses to what was heard. The extensive four programmed workbooks and accompanying tape recordings by Horacek and Lefkoff are one of the best examples of this approach. The themes that were treated in the four volumes are: intervals, melody and rhythm, and chords (Parts I and II). By using a tally mark system, students had to reach a pre-determined score in order to continue with the next unit. Apart from singing intervals (the first tone is given by the tape and the student had to sing the second, followed by the two correct answers provided by the tape), interval dictations also formed part of this course. Although the order of the intervals to be learned could be varied by the student, the recommended order was to start with the smallest and to increase the size of the intervals systematically. The second volume started with simple rhythmical dictations and sight singing exercises which basically consisted of second intervals. Major and minor chords were later introduced and combined with second intervals. Melodic dictations were included, starting with four-bar phrases which were later extended to eight-bar phrases. In the other two volumes isolated seventh chords were treated in close and open positions and varied inversions while applying figured bass symbols. Roman chord symbol dictation, figured bass dictation, modulation recognition, non-harmonic tones and chord singing (arpeggio singing) were amongst other things included.383 Other examples of fragmented programmed Aural Training were found in, for example, the programs of Robert G. Olson,384 and Trubitt and Hines.385 Apart from the training of written responses to aural stimuli, Trubitt and Hines also incorporated "new. methods such as fusing and scanning, which are both described in sections 4.1.4 and 4.1.12. Influenced by contextual thinking which developed from the cognitive school of thinking, trends of microscopic structural Aural Training can be seen in Leo Kraft's melodic dictation course, in which preparatory dictation assignments consist of recognizing the highest/lowest note(s) of a played phrase. "Since the musician's goal is to hear the melody as a whole rather than to hear one or a few notes at a time, the program teaches patterns of melody. The course also stresses melodic shape and contour, teaching the perception of melody in whole phrases. "386 Sherman and Morris also followed the contextual approach in their program which consisted of a two-volume workbook organised into 57 units of study, a pre-test, exercises, post-test and thirteen stereo LP records, pre- and 383 Leo Horacek and Gerald Lefkoff, Programed Ear Training, Vois. I-IV. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1970. 384 Robert G. Olson, Music Dictation: A Stereo-Taped Series. Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 1970. 385 Allen R. Trubitt and Robert S. Hines, Ear Training and Sight-Singing: An Integrated Approach, Books I and ll. New York: Schirmer Books, 1979 (I) and 1980 (II). 386 Leo Kraft, A New Approach to Ear Training - A Programed Course in Melodic Dictation. New York: W.W. Norton, 1967 p. 3. 121 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za post-test booklets and a teacher's manual. The following is an example of how interval identification could, according to them, be trained within a musical context:387 Fig. 2.22 Sherman and Morris: Example of interval identification within a musical context Item 1 Flute Oboe Item 2 I would be expressed on the. answering form as: 1. Flute 5_0_ A B (or 5_0_) B °_ and appropriately answered 5..x... val heard is the ~ame as the first. A to indicate that the second inter. Another example of the application of microscopic structural learning to Aural Training was found in the program of Kral and Zopf.388 One major disadvantage of the majority of NeAT programs is that mostly 'passive' Aural Training is possible, enabling students to give mostly written responses to what was heard. Active responses such as tapping rhythms or singing melodies from sight can only be practised in a form of "self-comparison/evaluation" compares/evaluates his performance with the tape-played performance. in which the student Through the use of certain teaching machines a limited form of active Aural Training is, however, possible . . The use of teaching machines for Aural Training was introduced in the early 1960s by, for example, Harry Hammer. Although not using programmed instruction per se, Hammer utilised a tachistoscope for the teaching of sight singing. The tachistoscope illumination setting can be described as a "flashmeter used on an overhead projector making it possible to control the and duration of projected images." Thirty-one slides with tonal patterns organised in an easy to difficult were prepared. tachistoscopic Programmed The projected patterns had to be sung with letters or syllables. In his experiment, training proved to be more effective than conventional blackboard and music staff paper training.389 instruction, utilising teaching machines for enable 'active' Aural Training, was made possible by the TAP Master and the Pitch Master Systems developed by David L. Schrader in 1974 and 1983. The first program aims to develop rhythm reading skills and performance abilities and consists of the TAP MASTER II Unit, cassette tapes and accompanying books, stereo headphones, cassette tape deck (provided by user), and optional acrylic stand. While listening to a cassette tape from one of the Tape Series through headphones, the narrator guides the student through the rhythmic exercises in the accompanying book. Each exercise has to be performed by tapping on the TAP 387 Robert W. Sherman and Morris H. Knight, Student New York: McGraw-Hill, 1972 p. iv. Workbook 388 Walter Kral and Ivo Zopf, Gehorbildung reichischer Bundesverlag, 1989. fiir individuelles - Lehrgang for Aural Comprehension Selbststudium in Music Vol. 1. Band 1. Vienna: Oster- 389 Harry Hammer, "An Experimental Study of the {Jse of the Tachistoscope in the Teaching of Melodic Sight Singing" in Journal of Research in Music Education, (1963) pp. 44-45, 52. 122 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Master Unit's "TAP Button". A correct response is accompanied by a percussive sound that overlays the music of the exercise. If the tap is early or late by more than a few thousandths of a second, the percussive sound is not heard. Each correct tap is also counted by a LED counter, thus reinforcing accurate performance through the percussive sound and by the numerical score displayed on the counter. Three phases of the development while using TAP Master can be determined: of rhythmic ability (a) students learn to listen to music and to discern its pulse; (b) rhythms which relate specific patterns to the internalised pulse are to be read; (c) visual patterns are absorbed kinesthetically. The student is conditioned set against a background to "feel" rhythms at sight through direct muscular responses. of music from "Bach to Bacharach, rhythms within a musical context. developed to reach a professional orchestral The rhythmic exercises are to synthesizer", In three series (110 cassette tapes) the rhythmic enabling the studying of ability of a beginner can be level. Two TAP Master units can be connected with each other, enabling more than one student at a time to respond to the same tape and tape player. Responses and scoring remain independent as the students participate in a degree of competition. Basically the same principles are followed in the Pitch Master System which aims to develop basic pitch concepts and sight-reading skills in a context. Through an added microphone students have to sight sing exercises along with an accompaniment. While a student is singing a pitch sequence, he can hear his own voice on one side of the headphone. If he is 'on tonal target', a reference tone of the correct pitch sounds on the other side of the headphone. reference tone immediately disappears This if the student makes a mistake or when he sings out of tune .. Students' responses are reinforced by a meter which indicates if the student's tone is on pitch or whether it's sharp or flat, as well as the degree of deviation. A numerical score is also given for each exercise which can be compared with the score printed at the end of each exercise in the book. Three difficulty levels (45 tapes) are available, and the teacher can also create his own tapes.390 4.2.2 Computer-assisted Aural Training The history of the use of computers in the field of music started in 1957 with Max Mathews who developed direct computer synthesis at the Bell Laboratories. hardware breakthroughs developmental A chronological description of the history of system developments is beyond the scope of this study. There is nevertheless level of computers used.391 The electronic equipment and other electronic music instruments with its programmable a strong correlation (hardware) and the programs potential used in CAT has a stronger and between the (software) influence on the programs developed than is the case in NCAT. Therefore a part of this section on CAT will be devoted to a short description of computer hardware. 390 Temporal Acuity Products (TAP), Temporal Acuity Products - Music Education Bellevue, WA: TAP, [n.d.] pp. 4-10. (Accompanying letter dated October 1991.) 391 A computer system consists of hardware be touched as material objects. Software the computer. These lists of instructions, Fred T. Hofstetter, Computer Literacy Solutions (Catalogue). and software. The term hardware refers to the physical parts which can is the intellectual part in which the information or data that is fed into called programs, tell the computer what to do. for Musicians. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1988 p. 1. 123 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za The two types of computer Dedicated systems representative. music systems that can be distinguished are the dedicated and generic systems. are specially designed to accomplish a specific task or set of tasks, and are sold by a single Examples of dedicated computer music systems are the Fairlight, Synclavier, Yamaha CX5M and Exercetta.392 392 The Exercetta is an innovative drill-and-practice computer designed by Martin Prevel in 1984 in Canada. A flat, touch-sensitive command panel on which overlays are placed, is used as input device. On the top section twelve function keys and a 39-key piano keyboard are placed, and the lower section has 102 touch locations for music education course overlaps. An internal synthesizer which produces the timbre of an electronic piano is used and programs are on memory chips. In both Exercetta Aural Training programs [Ear Training 1: Chord Quality #1, Harmonic Dictation #1 (Major), Harmonic Dictation #1 (Minor), Intervals, Rhythmic and Melodic Dictation #1, Scale Degrees, Ear Training 2: Chord Quality #2, Diatonic Tonal Functions, Harmonic Dictation #2 (Major), Harmonic Dictation #2 (Minor), Pitch Accuracy, Vertical structures] students have the choice of (a) the exploring mode in which they can hear and compare sounds by touching symbols on the overlay; (b) initial training mode, in which the computer asks randomly generated questions and lets the students compare possible answers; (c) intensive training, in which a question is repeated if the students get it wrong; and (d) the test mode, in which students must answer a certain pre-determined number of questions for which the computer keeps score. The user has control over several aspects, such as the number of questions which is initially set to them and they can also choose the material (e.g. harmonies) to be included and change the key of the exercise. A Melocaptor option makes possible the teaching of sight singing by connecting the Exercetta to a microphone. Through the use of the software Basic Vocal Intonation, the Melocaptor can tell what basic pitch the student has sung and how close it is to true concert pitch within one sixteenth of a tone. The student can either choose (a) the repetition mode in which single notes, intervals, tetrachords and arpeggios should be repeated, and (b) the sight singing option requiring the student to sing a notated stimulus without hearing it. A generic Apple version of the Melocaptor is also available. Fred T. Hofstetter, Computer Literacy for Musicians. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1988 pp. 47-48. 124 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Because the number of programs for dedicated computers is limited and because prices are beyond the financial scope of the average musician, generic systems which are based on brand-name microcomputers and are configured by mixing and matching components as the user can afford them became more popular.393 Thomas E. Rudolph listed the following computer manufacturers and generic computer models that are used in Computer-assisted Music Education: Apple II (lIe, IIc, IIgs) Apple Macintosh Atari ST Commodore-64/128 Commodore-Amiga mM XT, AT, PS/2394 As the ll$pect of sound generation is important for the Aural Training teacher, it is necessary to look briefly at the four ways to generate sound in a microcomputer. The first is called speaker tweaking in which electrical pulses are sent to the speaker mounted inside the computer. Volume cannot be controlled and the timbre is limited to square and pulse wave-shapes. In the second instance, internal sound chips (microprocessors specially designed to generate sound), which are limited to three and four voices, are used. In the direct synthesis approach the microcomputer's central processor is used to compute sound waves and then send them directly to a speaker without the aid of a sound chip. Finally, external sound generators such as keyboards, synthesizers, samplers, videodiscs and compact discs can be used.395 The development of MIDI opened new doors for sound generation and communication between electronic 393 Fred T. Hofstetter, Computer Literacy for Musicians. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1988 pp. 22-23. 394 Thomas E. Rudolph, "Technology for Teaching: Selecting a Personal Computer - Manufacturers and Models" in Music Educators Journal, 76 (October 1989) pp. 69-70. 395 Since the first instrument to generate electronic sounds, the.Telharmonium, was developed in 1897 by Amadeus Cahill, the development of electrophones, a te~. used by Curt Sachs and E. von Hornbostel in 1914, (synthesizers/keyboards/samplers, etc.) underwent tremendous development. Michael Harenberg, Neue Musik durch neue Technik? Musikcomputer als qualitative Herausforderung fUr ein neues Denken in der Musik. Kassel: Barenreiter, 1989 pp. 20 and 29. The term keyboard is often used for a variety of electronic instruments which have a piano-like keyboard. Synthesizer is a term used for an instrument in which tones, sounds and noise structures are merely produced by electronic means such as oscillators. It also has the ability to process sounds stemming from other instruments. Bernd Enders, Lexikon Musikelektronik. Mainz: Schott, 1985 p. 235. The term sampler and the technique of sampling can be defmed with the following quotation: "The most revolutionary aspect of modem music is sampling. Nothing allows a composer or recording musician to sound more like something else - anything else - than a sampling device, or what we commonly refer to as a sampler. This is quite amazing when you realize that sampling is based on one of the oldest of music technologies: recording. A sample is a recorded sound that is then used like a patch on a synthesizer, except that now it can be a true recreation of a speaking voice, a car crash, or a trumpet - not a computer-generated simulation or emulation. This is oversimplifying it a bit, but not much. Sampling is a term for a specific kind of recording recording other sounds into a form that can be used by keyboards, drum machines, guitar synths, computers, and so on." Harvey P. Newquist, Music & Technology. New York: Bilboard Books, 1989 p. 111. Videodisc: "Videodiscs contain digitally encoded sounds and graphics that can be shown as still slides or moving pictures .. Within a few seconds, anyone of 54,000 images can be located and displayed. Real music notation can be scrolled across the screen as the music plays in stereo." Fred T. Hofstetter, Computer Literacy for Musicians. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1988 p. 16. 125 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za equipment enriching programmed music instruction.396 The use of plug-in synthesizer cards such as the Mountain Music System, MMI DAC Board, the ALF card, Mockingboard and the IBM Music Feature Card can also be included here, as these cards can be plugged into the Apple's and IBM's expansion slots.397 396 During the early 1980s, Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) was developed in order to allow the send\ng and receiving of information, but also for distributing that information between electronic equipment (e.g. different synthesizers, synthesizers and computers). MIDI's primary function is to enable communication or networking between two or more el~ctronic instruments such as keyboards, drum machines, samplers, guitar synthesizers, microcomputers fitted with a MIDI connection, software for recording, composing and writing music, as well as peripheral effects such as sound enhancers (reverb, chorus, distortion, etc.). The connection of two or more electronic instruments by means of a MIDI link theoretically creates endless control possibilities. Individual synthesizers, for example, can be singled out in a network and can be told when to sound. Hofstetter addressed some of the advantages of MIDI for CAT: "As the cost of MIDI keyboards continues to decline, and as MIDI interfaces become standard equipment on brand-name microcomputers, music courseware will be able to take advantage of keyboards and synthesizers that have heretofore been too expensive for widespread use. By using samplers to play music in CAl programs-, students will be able to listen to the actual sounds of acoustic instruments instead of the boring square-waves most programs use today. MIDI microphones, such as the Pitchrider produced by IVL Technologies Ltd., will allow the computer to listen to students perform. Musicminus-one applications will teach students how to play in tune and in time with an ensemble. The biggest problem in sight-reading pedagogy is that when students practice by themselves, they cannot tell whether they are singing the correct pitches. With MIDI, they will"learn how to read music by singing into a microphone and watching the computer indicate how close they are to the notated pitch." A typical MIDI configuration looks as follows: Fig. 2.23 A typical MIDI configuration o Harvey P. Newquist, MusiC & Technology. New York: Bilboard Books, 1989 pp. 37-41. Fred T. Hofstetter, Computer Literacy for Musicians. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1988 pp. 79 and 81. . 397 Fred T. Hofstetter, Computer Literacy for Musicians. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1988 pp. 4-5,68-73. 126 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za The following block diagram is an example of a fully configured computer music system in which the four basic types of computer hardware (input, central processing unit, memory unit and output) are portrayed:398 Fig. 2.24 Hofstetter: Block diagram of a fully configured computer music system Input a.vices ReadNl,it. Floppy disk drivt: Stores and tltrilveS computer data and sohwall programs. Jaystic:l: the U.I moves fhe stick to position. point., on Ih. suetn .nd presses Ihi button to initiall an action. liiht pen: canllins. Mlff.ory H.,d disk drm: lIortland reuitYIS la,9" amounts of information mall quickly thin floppy disk driva. light sensor; whln held IQIinlt objects drawn on lh. sereln, it tills the compulII ill position. Displ.y ScrHA Plddl,: Ih. UIIf lurM or d.ct •••• quantity. I Optal disk driw: Slores II'Id IItri.VIS massive amounts at computer information. Displays tul.nd graphics by turning on Ind oU tiny dots in I grid 01 9f .pllics points. dial to incr••• CGStU. tap.: I VItV slow mllns of staring and relrining compuler dall and solMI" programs. \-. Touch ~.I: Ih. camput., Ih. serlin. fh. user communiClta with by louching obj.tts drlWf'l etA Cartrid,,: an ins'lnianeaUI W"f of noring Ind IItri.vinli compuler dar. and sollWlf' progrlms. Di,itiltt: the UIII inputs ObjlCl1 to Ih. campatlf by drawing themoon In .Ieclronic nOllp'd. Hlld Copy Dl"Iius MausI: ',tI the aUf position I paint., on the scrun by moving I liUle bOx on I f1.t lurflCl. lh. cord .ttached 10 the bOI IlIlmbles I mous,'s (Iii. Microprocessor: receives input, perlorms Cllculitionl, writes to thl screen. md conlrols ptripherJl devices; thl conUol center of a compuler music system. Printlr: paper. Klytlt: thl USl' inputs informal ion by typing it on I computer keyboard. prints charactlrs Planer: Uses, notation. on a pi.a at pen 10 driW musiul Music Onices Rtld-Dnly Memory Keyboard cantrall,,: allows thl musician to input "quinces of notll by playing them on I music Itlyboard. • Vidlodisc: a 12.inch flf!eclive disc thaI conlllns music videos. scrolling scores, slide banks. and high.fidelity recordings of Koustic music. MIDI: R5-Z]Z Musical interl.ct: Inslrument $lquenar: "cordi and pl.."s back .qu,"* of n011l Ptrio,m.d on (hi communicatiullS Digital music keyboard. st..,d.,d Inl.rflu; interconnects SynttltSizet: produces I sound by computing its wlVlShap •• lor conuolling periphlr.1 musical davices input Sampllr: produc. I sound by playing • digital recording of ill wlWshape. such is Illd videodisc output IIld devices. compact Compact disc: 14.7.inch fel1lCti ••• disc, eKh side of which can hold up lO 14 minuta of digitally ,.co,ded n'rlO disc. Micropbane: allows the musician 10 input natll by linving Of playing them an ecaustic insrrumtnu. In the field of computer applications sound. to Aural Training the University of Delaware's GUIDO Ear-Training System (first developed on a Burrough mainframe computer in 1973, then adapted to the PLATO system in 1975, micro PLATO in 1980 and ffiM PC in 1985), is one of the milestones in CAT.399In to publish a set of Aural Training programs Williams. 1978, Micro Music Inc. (MMI) began available for the Apple II computers under the guidance of David During the 1980s several companies and individuals such as the Minnesota Educational Computing Con- sortium, Electronic Courseware Systems, Silver Burdett, Will Harvey, Xanadu, etc. developed Aural Training software. Although the Apple II family has the worst built-in sound capability of any microcomputer, 398 Fred T. Hofstetter, Computer Literacy for Musicians. most software was Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1988 p. 3. 399 The PLATO system is the largest mainframe computer in the education field. It is a large-scale computer which can be used simultaneously by many people. The opposite of a mainframe computer is the microcomputer. 127 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za developed for it merely because of market-orientated reasons.400 Trends at the end of the 1980s indicated that software for the Macintosh and IBM computers became more important. "Of the music software presently available, less than half is for computers other than the Apple II series. However, most of the software being written today is for the MS-DOS (IBM compatible) and Apple Macintosh computers. In the next five years, we will see a strong shift of software to the MS-DOS and Macintosh environments. The Apple II will continue to be the choice for music education for at least four years, but it will lose its place to more powerful machines after that time. "401 The discussion up until now has mainly concentrated on the hardware equipment used in CAT. The software is actually more relevant because it forms the heart of prograIrtmed instruction in that it contains the teaching philosophy, goals and contents of instruction.. Wittlich et al. discussed four typical CAl "delivery modes" (program forms) which increase in complexity of design and implementation from the top to the bottom: (a) (b) (c) (d) Drill and practice: exercises appropriate to basic musical learning tasks, such as musical rudiments are constantly repeated in a form of presentations - response - feedback. Games: activities involving individual decision and a competition element, e.g. identifying intervals within a time limit. . Simulation: "a replication of the behavior of a phenomenon of one's universe designed to substitute for the phenomenon" - composition exercises can be a form of simulation lesson in music, but automated evaluation in terms of correctness is still problematic. Tutorial: Wittlich quoted J. Richard Dennis on this mode of delivery, which is '" ... a simulation of the interaction between the 'ultimate' instance ofan expert teacher and an arbitrary learner. In this sense, a tutorial lesson may be viewed as a concept from the field of artificial intelligence - an attempt to create, in machines, a type of exemplary human behavior. The basic elements of a tutorial lesson consist of an array of questions together with an intricate network of decisions connecting these episodes. The attempt is to simulate a very personal, and individually tailored, conversation between the 'expert' teacher and the widely varyiI).gstudent.' "402 From the list of commercially available CAT software that is presented in Appendix E, it is clear that the contents of the majority of programs include drill and practice in intervals, chords, dictation and tuning. The most frequently used modes of delivery are games and drill and practice. The Inttrval Mania and Chord Mania programs which are distributed by Temporal Acuity Products are examples of games in the "beat-the-clock" format. Also distributed by the same dealer is the Magic Musical Balloon Game, where aural recognition of up, down or the same are taught with the visual help of a balloon moving over mountains, down from trees, or straight along a fence. The students also have control over the movement of a balloon which enables them to create their own melodies. All programs with a fragmentary approach make use of these two modes and usually represent 'passive' Aural Training, demanding written responses either in the form of text, notation or answers clicked on on-screen keyboards/guitar frets. The GUIDO Music Learning System is one example of many programs in which the fragmented approach is used. In this program isolated intervals and chord qualities are drilled, and harmonic, rhythmic, pitch and melodic dictation presented. The student has control over the tempo, answering mode (pitch 400 Fred T. Hofstetter, Computer Literacy for Musicians. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1988 pp. 67, 123-126. 401 William R. Higgins, Computer applications in Music Education for the Apple II Series, Macintosh, & mM Microcomputers. Grantham, Pennsylvania 1990 p. 86. 402 Gary E. Wittlich, John W. Schaffer and Larry R. Babb, Microcomputers and Music. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1986 pp. 75-76. 128 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za names or solfeggio syllables), timbre and style of harmonic dictations (played in block chords, arpeggiated down ... a choice between nine different possibilities). The following two diagrams are examples of the drill and practice on intervals and the dictation of melodies as they appear in the program GUIDO:403 Fig. 2.25 Practice Unit 15 (Intervals lesson) and Unit 1 (Rhythmic Melodies Lesson) from the GUIDO computer program U"it lS ! I I"de>< ! Sou"d 1"(0 U"it1 I Hel" 1"(0 I"de>< Sou"d Hel" rPil r.;ll [M21r;;31 [Mil ~[ii:iHPSl ~ fM6i rt17l fPil Pl ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I HARMONIC 'Mj'i1wNi'ii_CIliUm I MELODIC I MELODIC ~ I FIX TOP I t IIFIX 80TTOMI-lpL-A-Y-A-CA-I~HI ~II KEYBORRO II LEN" TH I 11&111111111111111 A few programs address contextual Aural Training of which program, Hear Today... Play Tomo"ow is one example. In this a melody is heard and the missing notes should be added in the score (completion tasks). Programs demanding active response from the students in the form of the contextual sight reading of rhythms, the sight singing of complete melodies and/or repetition of short melodies on MIDI-instruments simulate to a certain extent skills that are applied in everyday musical life. The sight singing program computer in conjunction developed by Mary Jo Lorek and Randall G. Pembrook for the Atari 1040ST micro- with the Roland V-70 Voice Processor is one of the newest in the field of assessing sight- singing efforts and simulating human evaluation. The authors briefly reviewed the history of what is commonly 403 Fred T. Hofstetter, The GUIDO Music Learning System: Ear-Training Student Guide. Delaware: University of Delaware, 1989 pp. 17 and 47. 129 Lessons mM PC Version 2.1 - Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za known as 'pitch extraction' Allvin (1967), by referring to the research of, for example, ,404 Wolfgang E. Kuhn and Raynold L. Warren C. Campbell (1970), David G. Peters (1876), David L. Graves and John Lundin (1980), Randall M. Kolb (1983), Paul E. Dworak and Jane Cledinning (1986), Warren Joseph, Xanadu's Ear Training and Sight Singing. Lorek and Pembrook stated that their program is unique since both frequency and rhythm errors could be evaluated taking into account slight alterations in tempo and tonal center. The program has two modes: (a) a student interface with melodies and performance options, arid (b) an evaluation mode. The student first has to select a melody to sing and has the options of transposing progression it if necessary, choosing a tempo between MM = 30 and 144, hear a I IV V7 I one or more times, and to hear the opening pitch as many times as necessary. introduction, A two-measure-Iong in which visual and aural cues (numbers flash on the screen and a metronome ticks on the frequency of the initial pitch) appear, is provided in order to indicate the tempo. After these two introductory rhythmic click track ceases, and the student has to sing into the microphone measures the while his responses are recorded on a special developed MIDI recorder for evaluation purposes. Evaluation information covers pitch errors, rhythm errors, starting pitch, information ending pitch, starting tempo, ending tempo, and 'debug data' (detailed frequency and rhythm about each performance). The evaluation criteria were derived from a pilot study in which an experienced rated pitches performed sight singing teacher consistently within 50 cents of the model pitch as correct. A frequency response was thus considered correct if it was within approx. 50 cents (a quarter tone) of the absolute frequency for a note in the given melody (equal-tempered scale with A4 = 440Hz), or if it was within approx. 50 cents of the correct interval created with the previous note. Mistakes were evaluated in the context according to interval size, considering all tones except the initial mistake as correct. The syllable tah was chosen to sing on because it provides discrete boundaries. on pilot testing information, was determined. The effectiveness a limit of approx. Proportionally Also based 15 % of the 128 times per second that the internal Atari clock ticks correct durations were accepted as correct. of the program was tested at the Conservatory of Music at the University of Missouri-Kansas by comparing computer evaluations with the human evaluation of three sight singing instructors. City The proportionally contextual evaluation approach to rhythm and pitch were agreed on in order to use the same evaluation criteria as the computer. program, 404 Interjudge indicated reliability coefficients between all instructors, and for each instructor that the computer evaluation was an accurate simulation with the computer of the teachers' judgments. Teachers Although this term describes the function of human pitch extractors - the ears and brain - Jo Lorek and Randall Pembrook did not consider this term to be accurate in describing the computer process. When the human ear is presented with a periodic waveform, it attempts to draw forth (extract) a name (E, B-flat, etc.) for the place this sound represents on a high-low spectrum (pitch). This ability of pitch extraction is well developed among most experienced sight-reading/singing teachers, but it can be reduced when a complex rhythmic and tonal syntax is heard only once, or if a melody is performed out of tune by the student. Many teachers view pitch extraction as a tiresome task which may also be subjective. All the different experiments with computer pitch extraction reflects the desire to assign this task to a more objective, tireless, and thorough evaluator. The authors, however, felt that the term pitch extraction does not accurately describe what occurs during that process with machines, and re-Iabelled pitch extraction as fundamental frequency transforming. Mary Jo Lorek and Randall G. Pembrook, "Present and Future Applications of a Microcomputer-based Frequency Analysis System" in Psychomusicology, 8/2 (1989) pp. 97-98. 130 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za appeared to be less strict than the computer, accepting an answer as correct unless the pitch was performed more than 60 cents sharp -or flat. The value of the the last note was never judged as incorrect even if a half note was sung as a staccato eighth. The problem that arose is whether the computer program should be revised to match the human perception represented by "expert" teachers, or whether the program should be slightly "stricter" in order to intensify the listening skills of both students and instructors.405 406 The field of computer-assisted instruction has by no means developed to its full potential, a fact that is emphasised by articles such as "Moet de musicus worden omgeschoold tot informaticus? Technologie: diabolus in musica of gradus ad pamassum?407 For Peter Weiss the use of computers leads to "robot thinking" in which computer capabilities, such as the saving, recalling and combining of information, are confused with human learning, memory and thinking. The result of having the computer as teacher also leads to a student falsely believing that he knows and is able to manipulate the material.408 Although referring to the application of computer-assisted instruction to general school music education, the problems that were addressed by Ekkehard Arnold can also be applied to CAT. He pointed out that the aural identification of a blues scheme is more relevant than the fragmented approach seen in the aural recognition of an inversion of a single triad. Regarding the sound generation of computer-driven sound modules and samplers, Arnold also emphasised the fact that these electronic instruments only partially represent reality. He furthermore observed that programs are adapted to the technical level of the computers.409 It is also questionable whether the often random computer-generated music examples meet the musical requirements set by the music literature. As an answer to this problem some programs allow the student to choose from a music library, which is made up of excerpts from examples from the music literature, or allow them to "customize" their own melodies. Ansgar Jerrentrup addressed other frustrations such as imprecise instruction manuals. and the use of unknown terminology often faced by teachers who are trying to inform themselves about CAT, or are attempting to learn a computer program.410 There is furthermore a tendency to concentrate on a limited number of Aural Training methods that are easily graded in terms of right and wrong. Programs based on holistic approaches to Aural Training are scarce. During 1982 405 Mary Jo Lorek, "Computer Analysis of Vocal Input: A Program that Simulates College Faculty Sight Singing Evaluation" in Computers in Music Research, 3 (Fall 1991) pp. 122-138. 406 Mary Jo Lorek and Randall G. Pembrook, "Present and Future Applications of a Microcomputer-based Frequency Analysis System" in Psychomusicology, 8/2 (1989) pp. 97-109. 407 Henk Smeijsters, "Moet de musicus worden omgeschoold tot informaticus? Technologie: diabolus. in musica of gi"adusad parnassum?" in Mens en Melodie, 42 (February 1987) pp. 52-59. ("Must musicians be retrained as computer programmers? Tegnology: diabolus in musica or gradus ad pamassum?" Researcher's own translation.) 408 Peter Weiss, "Computer konnen nun einmal nicht singen - Vortrag bei der D-A-CH - Tagung Ende April in Osterreich - Teil2" in Neue Musikzeitung, 37/4 (August/September 1988) p. 25. 409 Ekkehard Arnold, "GehOrbildungsprogramme - Zuriick zum Prill, vorwiirts zur Vernetzung?" in Musik und Bildung, 5 (1990) pp. 275-277. 410 Ansgar Jerrentrup, "Die Angst des Musiklehrers vor Bomben und anderen Uberraschungen beim Einsatz des Computers im Unterricht" in Musik und Bildung, 6 (1989) p. 331. 131 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Richard Douglas Ashley developed a program called LISTENER which was based on a theory of musical cognition, portraying the cognitive qualities of a listener. This program 'listens' to a computer-composed piece of music, and provides a memory record of some of the events of the music. His preliminary goal was to write a program which would be able to give descriptions of the music equivalent to those which are obtained by answering the preliminary questions in a section of the Wittlich and Humphries Aural Training text mentioned in section 4.1.11. The foundation of the Wittlich-Humphries method is that musical skills should be developed in the context of dealing with real music and that analysis is a relevant and legitimate model for the understanding of skilled listening. After first listening to a piece of music the student has to answer general questions. During the next steps the questions become more specific, followed by drills on certain rhythmic patterns and melodic or harmonic figures taken from the piece, and dictation. In his program Ashley attempted to represent this listening process. A compositional program called MORTYFRA was used to compose a piece upon which LISTENER could work. "The scenario is as follows: the listener hears the first few notes of the MORTYFRA piece. Given a certain kind of musical know-how equivalent to that which most undergraduate music majors would have, he would be able to place the piece as being 'modem' music (through the lack of obvious tonality, the sparse texture, and the electronic sounds of the oscillators). At this point a few of his procedure packages for dealing with music drop away -- those which would let him deal with Mozart, for example. He is left with a few more things that he can look for. One is the beat; the sparseness of the piece's beginning makes the appearance o{what might be considered a beat in the more active sections all the more striking. Thus, the 'beat' procedure is called upon to help make sense of the music. The student also recognizes the main parametric setup of the piece; this becomes more clear as the sections advance, showing him that the music is in fact largely molded by the changes to be found in the values of the three main parameters. His goal in listening is to be able to describe the music in some general way ... At the end of his listening he can talk about the overall sectional construction of the music, as well as the relative importance of the different attack densities and the way in which the piece goes in and out of having a beat. It This last task of generally describing the music was not undertaken in the LISTENER program. Further learning and more detailed relationships as presented in the Wittlich-Humphries method are not addressed in this program.411 Unfortunately no commercially available program was developed based on Ashley's approach to aural analysis, because of practical programming problems attached to it. Computer-based programmed Aural Training suffers from a general tendency to adapt software to the capability of the hardware instead of, as Johannes Goebels recommended, defining software first and then the hardware. 412 Ekkehard Arnold penned some of his software dreams, which are as follows: a MIDI-version of a polyphonic music piece written for a melody instrument, bass, guitar and percussion is played by the computer with graphical notation or traditional notation appearing on the monitor parallel to the played music. The user has the possibility of changing the tempo of the piece without influencing pitch, and one or more than one voice can be amplified dynamically speaking or totally omitted. The student should, for example, listen to the rhythmical pattern and clap it, as well as identifying the places where the pattern changes. This should be followed by identifying harmony changes and 411 Richard Douglas Ashley, Toward a Theory of Instruction in Aural Skills. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 1982. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1982 pp. 102-103, 121-138. 412 Johannes Goebel, "My Dream (Machine?)" in Computer Music Journal, 15/4 (Winter 1991) p. 49. 132 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za cadence functions. In the melody part a frequently returning motive should be identified and be repeated vocally. The bass part should be played on the MIDI keyboard and then be notated. Changes by the user in the on-screen notation should be possible. Another dream of Arnold is the computer simulation of musical situations such as a school choir rehearsal. The student has to identify for example intonation mistakes and correct them.413 Arnold's hopes are not impossible to fulfil. A new form of computer technology, called computer-controlled media, integrates text, audio and video with computer. Referring to the "intelligences" mathematical, linguistic, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, spatial and interpersonal) multi- defined by Gardner (logical- in 1983, Yolanda Jenkins pointed out that multi-media technology has the potential of tapping and stimulating each of these "intelligences" .414 Warner New Media gave a step in the direction development of CD+G of incorporating multi-media into Music Education with their (Compact disc plus Graphics). Through this technology it is possible to view lyrics, pictures and other visual accompaniment on a television screen while listening to a Compact Disc. This development was followed by Audio Notes' CD-Rom, in which a CD-Rom drive can be attached to a Macintosh computer and audio playback equipment such as headphones, Fig. 2.26 desktop speakers or the most sophisticated stereo system: A typical CD + G configuration o C? 0 ~-I--I-o CD-ROMDRIVE AUDIOOUTPUT In the Portable Symphony series, a moment-by-moment descriptive analysis of, for example, Anton Bruckner's Ninth Symphony is displayed on the computer screen while the music sounds. With the aid of a selections card, the user can choose exactly where he would like to skip to, and the CD Control Panel enables rewind, fast forward scan, skip, pause and play functions. fifty different instruments The CD-Rom program The Orchestra has the following features: details of nearly of the orchestra are presented with photos of how they are played, diagrams, than five hundred audio examples which range from seagUlls to Stravinsky. and more In a conducting lesson students are able to 'pick up the baton' and follow the diagrams and musical examples. The Orchestrcltion Lab function enables the student to select the instruments that should play. 415 413 Ekkehard Arnold, "GehOrbildungsprogramme Bildung, 5 (1990) p. 277. - Zuriick zum Drill, vorwiirts zur Vernetzung?" in Musik und 414 Yolanda Jenkins, "Multimedia Technology: Tools for Early Learning" in Sueann Ambron and Kristina Hooper (Eds), Learning with Interactive Multimedia - Developing and Using Multimedia Tools in Education. Redmond, Washington: Microsoft Press, 1990 pp. 116-117. 415 Warner New Media, Newness, 1/3 (July 1991) pp. 1-3. Warner New Media, Audio Notes - specification sheet on The Orchestra, [n.d.]. 133 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Multi-media has not yet been incorporated into the field of CAT, but it is hoped that programmers will start to dream the 'impossible' dream! They should move away from developing drill-and-practice Aural Training software cognitive from a comprehensive learning theories. The possibilities and holistic viewpoint, programs, and start to develop taking into account music psychological of CD-ROM should be explored in order to enable the inclusion of "real" music (e.g. as on Compact Discs) into programs. Until this happens, it is doubtful whether the use of the computer will lead students to understand more than isolated intervals and chords. *** 134 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za CHAPTER THREE A questionnaire-based survey As stated in Chapter One, the purpose of this research endeavour is primarily to develop an understanding of the state of Aural Training as presented at a tertiary level. A broad spectrum of Aural Training aspects that could be found in subject-related literature and other sources were described in Chapter Two, which forms the theoretical part of this study. In order to complete the picture of Aural Training, the second practical part (Chapter Three) aims, by means of a questionnaire, to present a view of certain aspects of Aural Training as they appeared in teaching practice in 1991 at selected tertiary music institutions. The survey was limited to music education on a tertiary level, because of its direct influence on primary and secondary music teaching. Trends manifested in the curricula and didactics will inevitably be reflected in primary and secondary music education. The extent to which primary and secondary curriculum planning enables the incorporation of Aural Training remains an open question which this survey does not attempt to answer. The information contained in Chapter Three is categorised under the following headings: 1. 2. 3. 4. 1. Objectives of the research project 1991 Design Results, discussions and conclusions Summary and recommendations OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH PROJECT 1991 The primary goal of this investigation was to describe the general state of Aural Training in three countries. The secondary goals were (1) to compare aspects of Aural Training in the three countries; and (2) to examine the validity of the following practical hypotheses:1 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (t) (g) Aural Training is looked upon as a subject that merely supports other subjects. Aural Training is treated as a separate subject in the curricula of tertiary institutions. The teaching time available for Aural Training is not sufficient. More emphasis is placed on Sight Singing and Dictation than on other teaching methods. Aural Training is taught only in the smaller contexts of musical phrases and little attention is given to an overall structural approach. Computer-assisted instruction is not included in the majority of Aural Training curricula. In cases where Computer-assisted Aural Training has been applied, the achievements of students have improved noticeably. Against this background of primary and secondary goals, the investigation more specifically concentrated on collecting information concerning: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) 1 curriculum planning (status of subject; time available for teaching; teaching settings); the goals of Aural Training; "ideal" teaching circumstances; teaching methods; handbooks and/or workbooks that are used; Edwin E. Gordon distinguished between a statistical and a practical hypothesis in his book Designing Objective Research in Music Education: Fundamental Considerations. Chicago, Illinois: G.I.A. Publications, 1986, pp. 10-11. 135 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za (1) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (I) (m) (n) (0) (p) (q) the substance of teaching materials: literature and/or "self-composed"; holistic approaches to Aural Training such as analysis of forms based only on what is heard (Aural Analysis); attitudes towards research in Aural Training; computer-assisted Aural Training (CAT); attitudes towards CAT; reasons for neglecting CAT; the effect of CATon achievement; the role of the computer: as part of teaching and/or homework; computer users: weak/good/all students; hardware, software and MIDI implementations; recommendations for improved software; non-computer-based Aural Training "programmes" e.g. handbooks with exercises included on audio cassette(s) or reel to reel tape(s). The nature of this study is thus descriptive, exploratory and explanatory:2 descriptive in the sense that it attempts to sketch the state of Aural Training in 1991; exploratory, because relatively unexplored areas such as Aural ADalysis and CAT are examined; explanatory, in the sense that reasons for the omission of CAT are sought, and that possible relationships between isolated aspects of Aural Training are identified in cross-tabulation calculations. 2. DESIGN 2.1 Measuring instrument and target group Information on Aural Training was collected by means of a structured mailed questionnaire consisting of multiple choice answers and open questions. The advice of three authorities in the field of Aural Training was sought in compiling the contents of the questionnaire.3 The target group to which questionnaires were mailed was restricted to lecturers of Aural Training at tertiary institutions located in: • • • the Republic of South Africa (RSA) the Federal Republic of Germany "East and West" (FRG) . the United States of America (USA)4 Lecturers from these three countries were included for the following reasons: firstly, the Western Classical music tradition is followed at tertiary institutions in all three countries.s Secondly, undergraduate music courses offered at German Musikhochschulen more or less have the same contents as undergraduate music courses offered at universities in the RSA and the USA. Thirdly, Aural Training literature frorn both Germany and the United States is used at 2 B.J. Dixon, "Opnamemetodes" in J. Schnetler (Ed.), Opnamemetodes- en praktyk. Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council, 1989, pp. 12-13. 3 Dr. Paul Loeb van Zuilenburg, Prof. Irene Matz, and Prof. Rainer Wehinger. Dr. Marianne Hassler and Mr. Karl Kirschmann assisted the researcher in statistical issues. 4 S The abbreviations will be used throughout the rest of this chapter. The abbreviation ALL refers to all the Aural Training lecturers from the three countries calculated as a whole. Along with the political changes in South Africa there is a growing tendency towards the incorporation of Ethnic Music in music departments. Yet, the core of serious music studies remains Western. 136 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za South African university music departments, and it therefore indirectly influences teaching methods in the RSA. Fourthly, certain aspects of Aural Training are typical to both the FRG and the USA. One aspect is the well-known fact that the USA is a leader in the field of CAT, and that American music computer software influences teaching in the RSA and the FRG directly or indirectly. A second aspect is the use of Aural Analysis that has become more popular and important in the FRG. The subject in general, as well as Aural Training in the RSA, can benefit from a closer look at these aspects. The homogeneity as well as the diversity of the three countries was the reason for selecting them. 2.2 Sampling procedures For the RSA and the FRG the whole population of Aural Training lecturers teaching at universities with music departments and state-acknowledged Musikhochschulen was taken into account. Thirteen lecturers teaching at 13 South African universities received questionnaires,6 and 153 questionnaires were mailed to lecturers teaching at 25 German Musikhochschulen. 7 It was necessary to draw a sample of Aural Training lecturers in the USA for various reasons. Not only does the whole population consist of possibly more than 1500 people, but it was also difficult to obtain a list of Aural Training lecturers.8 In the Directory of Music Faculties in Colleges and Universities, U.S. and Canada 1990-92, 114 teaching areas are listed together with the names of teachers of subjects. Aural Training is, however, not listed amongst these subjects!9 Although it is most probably listed together with other subjects under headings such as "Rudiments" and "Theory and 6 A list of the South African universities with music departments was supplied by the South African Embassy in Bonn. 7 A list of Musikhochschulen was found in the Musikalmanach 1990/91 published by the German Music Association, Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1989, pp. 246-259. A supplementary list of the Musikhochschulen in the former East Germany was received from the president of the German Music Association, Prof. Dr. Franz Muller-Heuser. Responses from directors of Musikhochschulen, as well as names published in different Lecture Directories (Vorlesungsverzeichnisse), were used to compile a list of German Aural Training lecturers. 8 According to the lists of Music Schools and Departments in Musical America - International Directory of the Performing Arts (1988 p. 470 - 504), there are about 500 universities with music departments in the United States of America. If it is assumed that there are approximately 3 to 5 Aural lecturers per university, the total number of lecturers is 1500 to 2500 .. Pembrook and Riggins found in their survey that the average number of teachers in Aural Training at a given institute (graduate teaching assistants included) ranged from slightly under 2 (schools with less than 50 music majors), to nearly 7 (schools with more than 200). In "'Send Help!': Aural Skills Instruction in U.S. Colleges and Universities" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 4/2 (Fal11990) p. 233. 9 Catherine Butler (Ed.), Directory of Music Faculties in Colleges and Universities, U.S. and Canada 199092. Missoula, MT: CMS Publications, 1990. 137 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Analysis", it is impossible to discern from the list which teachers are responsible stage, pro-portional, for Aural Training. A multiple- stratified grouping procedure of sample drawing was therefore decided upon.10 In order to compile a list of Aural Training lecturers, the 50 states of the USA were taken as strata. Letters were sent to 150 heads of music departments, departments information in each state)l. was represented Geographical Responses provided number 118 names (45 universities on a map in order to examine the distribution of universities located in thirty with music states). This which was found to be satisfactory. location was thus used as a variable of stratification. Questionnaires were sent to the 118 lecturers as well as to 16 universities in the states that did not respond to the first letter. In total 134 questionnaires In the following populations taking into account the proportional diagram were mailed to lecturers in the USA. a summary of the USA sample design is presented, as well as information on the used for the RSA and FRG: Fig. 3.1 Summary of sample design 10 D.J. Stoker, "Basiese Steekproefnemingsmetodes in J. Schneller Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council, 1989, pp. 112-119. II 11 (Ed.), Opnamemetodes- en praktyk. Names and addresses of music departments were found in: Shirley Fleming (Ed.), "Music Schools and Departments" in Musical America - International Directory of the Performing Arts, 1988, p. 470 - 504. 138 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 3. RESULTS, DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS The sum of lecturers that completed the questionnaire (representative of all three countries) was 134 (45%). Five questionnaires were received back after the calculations had been done and were not taken into account. The actual sum of questionnaires used in the calculations was 129 (43 %). The response rates for the individual countries were as follows: • • • • RSA FRG USA ALL (Overall response rate) 7 (54%) 69 (45%) 53 (40%) 129 (43%) The seven respondents from the RSA represented seven different universities located in three provinces. In the FRG, 23 Musikhochschulen located in all sixteen provinces, were represented by the 69 respondents. The 53 respondents from the USA represented 44 different universities located in 27 states. Although these percentages seem low, the distribution of responses in the various countries is sufficiently convincing. The maps and lists presented in Appendix F provide proof of this. Furthermore, the whole population of Aural Training lecturers was taken into account for the South African and German parts of the survey and not just a sample, as is the case in most research endeavours. One should be cautious about generalizations based on the findings for the USA because the response rate was 40%, and a 10% sample was drawn from the population of Aural Training lecturers. The possibility of sampling bias in the USA fmdings can thus not be ruled out.12 A reason for the 40% response rate could be that this questionnaire was the fourth of its kind received by some respondents within a ten-year time-frame. All calculations were done with the SPSS computer software package (version 4.0; 1990) on the COMPAREX 7188 computer at the Center for Data Processing, University of Tiibingen. Mainly frequencies and percentages were calculated. In isolated cases, relationships between questions were examined by means of cross-tabulation calculations. Harvard Graphics software (version 2.10; 1987) was used for drawing the graphs. An example of the English version of the questionnaire, a detailed presentation of the results of each question and the respondents comments are presented in Appendix G .13 I In the following discussions of the results, reference is made to: 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 The objectives of Aural Training Organisational aspects Methodological aspects Teaching materials and attitudes towards research Non-computer-assisted Aural Training (NCAT) 12 Collins, in a similar questionnaire-based survey, indicated a response rate of 67%. Killam indicated 53% and Pembrook and Riggins 37 %. Randall G. Pembrook and H. Lee Riggins, "'Send Help!': Aural Skills Instruction in U.S. Colleges and Universities" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 4/2 (Fal11990) pp. 231 and 233. 13 The Afrikaans and German translations of the questionnaire and accompanying letters appear in Appendices H and!. 139 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 3.6 3.7 3.1 Computer-assisted Aural Training (CAT) Other aspects of Aural Training The objectives of Aural Training The question on the goals of Aural Training consisted of two parts. Firstly, respondents had to indicate whether they saw Aural Training as a subject that mainly supports instrumental, singing and music ,theory courses (as a subsidiary subject), or as a subject with its own goals. Secondly, respondents who chose the latter had to comment briefly on the goals that they pursued. According to the results, 57.1 % of the respondents in the RSA saw Aural Training as a subject that merely supports other subjects, whereas the majority of respondents in the FRG (53.6%) and the USA (58.5%) indicated that it is a subject with its own goals. The practical hypothesis Aural Training is looked upon as a subject that merely suppons other subjects could be accepted as true only for the RSA, and had to be rejected for the FRG and USA. However, the fact that there was only a minor difference of 10.8% in the overall response frequencies between the merely suppon (44.2%) and subject with its own goals (55%) answers, revealed a lack of conformity among lecturers on the fundamental goal of Aural Training. The respondent's comments to the second part of the question were analysed and grouped together into ten different categories: The development of structural hearing: Cognizant analytical hearing; Recognition of musical cohesion; Structural meaning of material; Aural analysis as a subject with its own status - verbalising and embodying (to objectify) the estimated impression ("Verbalisierung u. Objektivierung d. fliichtigen H6reindrucks"); Development of structural criteria through hearing/also non-schematic perception of New Music; Recognition of form schemes; Conscious understanding of musical relationships in detail and in bigger form schemes; Recognition of compositional and historical attributes; Means of developing organisation; Schooling of analytical and intuitive hearing; To process sound as meaningful patterns. The development of inner hearing: To develop the "hearing eye" and "seeing ear"; It should help musicians to internalise music; Improvement of interrelations of notation and sound; Awareness of sound imagination; Being able to look at music and hear it, to hear music and be able to write it down; Development of imagination; To create a musician who can function without an instrument; To think sound, to hear it mentally, to listen with an "inner ear'; To aid the visual-aural perception of music. The development of hearing strategies/hearing patterns: Development of hearing strategies; Availability of thinking patterns; Systematic work through of the musical elements; Schooling in applying learning patterns; Development of musical memory, coordination, concentration. Statement: Aural Training is the basis of all musical activities: Aural Skills are fundamental to all aspects of active musical performance. After all, music is by defInition an "aural" art!; It controls the entire perception of music; Aural training is a central part/most important part of any musician's training; Aural Training is signifIcant in every aspect (performance or evaluation) of music; Ear Training is the basis of all reading and writing. Without it, communication is almost impossible; The ability to hear has to do with the whole human being, his personality in the broadest sense. The development of musical understanding: To improve musical understanding, Conscious hearing, Musical sense; Trains knowledgeable listening; The essence of musicianship is involved in the mental integration of sound, symbol and label. The development of musical perception: Improve music perception; Sensitization of the ear with reference to all the musical parameters; Sharpen recognition skills; To fIne-tune discriminatory ability; Schooling of musical perceptive consciousness; Control over sound influences on the musical ear. 140 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za The development of musical literacy: To improve musicianship; To learn the language of music expressed through sound; An increase in musical awareness, sensitivity to musical experience, for listeners/performers; Development of music literacy; Development of musical independence; Development of creative abilities through hearing; Intensify aural acuity. The development of practical skills: Sight-singing, score reading, pitch-tuning, timbre, pitch and rhythm discrimination, error detection, correction listening, intonation, performance skills with other students, reproduction of what is heard, harmonic discrimination, discrimination between major and minor, evaluation skills, etc., recognition of intervals, sensitivity to the tonal system, dictation and playing what has been heard, reproduction of what has been heard, either vocally, verbally or in written keyboard form, evaluative hearing _ ability to criticise. To also support other music courses: Theory and Ear Training are "co-requisites" but the contents are not the same. Ear Training moves at a slower pace; A tough question to answer as it is, to me, both goals. However, (b) perhaps comes out on top; Aural Training will always be related to the musical practice, and in the same way to theory. That is why I fought (successfully) against this distinction between "Theory" on the one hand, and "Aural Training" on the other hand. I am principally against the education of "desk-drawerthinking"; Does support performance and theory; In a sense, that is a supporting role to one's career; '" of course this should lead to the goals in (a) above; Thus it supports/is basis to serious study of music; Aural Training forms the basis for other subjects, and other subjects form the basis for Aural Training. Why (a) or (b)?; I cannot divide (a) and (b); I cannot separate the two. Structural understanding of music as mental procedure will always support special instruction e.g. technical support for performances as well as in interpretative matters According to (a): Hearing is biased in the field of Music Theory through historically influenced errors ("Root-hearing"). According to (b): Hearing as subject with its own goals should be seen as a corrective of (a), but needs a Music Theoretical historical basis. Both (a) and (b) require each other. Other: Other specific goals and remarks that do not necessarily deal with goals, were put in this category: The shaping of the aural ability in the direction of music aesthetics (FRG); Practice of music therapy (FRG); Consonance-dissonance problem (FRG); I do not see Aural Training as a subject with its own goals. It is always at the service of music and music research (RSA); Main subject: Aural Training ("Horerziehung") (FRG); Aural "Training can have its own purposes for a few people who would like to develop Aural Training in a scientific way (FRG); "Basis subject, such as harmony and counterpoint. In contrast to harmony and counterpoint that work with the brain and manuscript paper, (pardon - this is very much shortened!) Aural Training is dependent on perception only (FRG); It sometimes happens that I construct my music theory teaching only through hearing (FRG); To enable each student to reach the optimum in his hearing ability (USA); Development of personal aural skills (I describe it as a "3rd instrument to be practised daily) (RSA); Aural Training's goal is to develop the musical ear (FRG). The purpose of having the respondents commenting on ~e goals was not so much the measurement of frequencies for each goal, than to be able to distinguish different goals pursued by lecturers. All these goals are related to each other which made classifying them difficult. The development of structural hearing leads, for example, to the development of musical understanding. To be able to understand music, one first has to be able to perceive music. The extent to which music has been perceived and understood is manifested in the reading and writing of music in all its different forms. The following quotation summarises the complex intertwined character of the goals of Aural Training: "Whoever has accomplished the goal of Aural Training, understands the inner structures of the music that he has heard in such a way that he can inform others about it. The proof of this understanding lies in different forms of communication such as: in a written form - the music in question can be put into notation; in a practical form - to sing or play from memory what was heard; in a verbal form - to describe what was heard with the help of music theory terminology. Each of these communication forms captures only one aspect of music. This is a requirement not only for communication, but also for analysis. Through this activity the perception of music is enriched and refined. It is interesting that reference is not made to realtime music, but always to the inner imaginary memory, and sometimes reference is made to newly created 141 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za music. The hearer learns to know 'what' is sounding in his inner ear. That is the goal of Aural Training. "14 Apart from the results of the RSA where a fairly large majority of the respondents (66.7 %) indicated the development of musical perception, other less obvious but nevertheless interesting trends were observed. The majority of FRG respondents (45.9%) indicated that one of their goals was to develop structural hearing. This complies with observations made at different Musikhochschulen where aural recognition of harmonic structures played an important. role, and subjects such as Aural Analysis were included in the curricula. The influence of the writings by Bruce Benward on the "hearing eye" and the "seeing ear" could be seen in the 35.5% of the USA respondents indicating the development of inner hearing.IS There was also a tendency amongst the majority of all respondents (36.6%) to indicate that aural skills should, apart from other goals, support other music courses. This could be a sign that a more comprehensive approach was desired by some respondents. Reasons for the diversity of opinions on the fundamental goal of Aural Training (subsidiary subject or subject with its own goals) can be sought in different teaching philosophies and/or in the inadequate training of many Aural lecturers. Robert Gauldin observed that basic musicianship at the college level was often taught by lecturers not interested in the subject, which led to unsystematic teaching approaches.I6 A German respondent commented that, although he gladly supported the research project, he was not a suitable person for answering questio'ns on Aural Training. He did not see the teaching of Aural Training as his vocation, and only taught the subject because the director, who was a personal friend, asked him to assist in a difficult situation. Roland Mackamul stated at two different conferences in 1977 and 1982, that Aural Training teachers with sound pedagogical credentials were scarce and that teaching jobs often provided an initial financial support for young composers.I7 Hans-Dieter Resch stated that lecturers familiar with the newest methods and research results of Aural 14 Researcher's translation of a comment by Prof. Hubert Haas in an interview on 7 November 1988. oWer am Ziel der GehOrbildung angekommen ist, versteht Musik, die er gehort hat, in ihren Strukturen so genau und bewuBt, daB er Andere dariiber informieren kann. Dieser Nachweis, verstanden zu haben, kann in verschiedenen Arten der Kommunikation gefiihrt werden: schriftlich - die betreffende Musik in Noten setzen; praktisch - aus dem Gedachtnis nachsingen oder nachspielen; oder sprachlich - mit theoretischen Begriffen defmieren. Jeder dieser Kommunikationsweisen haIt jeweils nur einen Teilaspekt von Musik fest, das ist eine Bedingung von Kommunikation, aber auch eine von Analyse. Dariiber hinaus wird durch diese Tatigkeiten die Wahrnehmung von Musik in hohem MaBe bereichert und verfeinert. Interessant ist, daB es sich dabei nicht um momentan konkret klingende Musik handelt, sondern immer um die innere Vorstellung erinnerter, manchmal auch neu erdachter Musik. Der Horer lernt immer mehr, zu wissen, 'was das ist', das in seinem Innern klingt. Das ist das Ziel von Gehorbildung. " 15 Bruce Benward, Sightsinging Complete. Dubuque: Wm.C. Brown, 1980 p. vii. 16 Robert Gauldin, "Teaching Music Theory: The Conservatory" in Journal of Music Theory, 18/1 (Spring 1974) pp.75-90. 17 Roland Mackamul, "Effektivitatsmindemde Faktoren im Bereich der GehOrbildung" in Josef Mayr-Kern (Ed.), Materialien und Dokumente aus der Musikpadagogik, Band 6: Musikalische Grundschulung an Ausbildungsstiitten fiir. Musikberufe - Dokumentation iiber die D-A-CH- Tagung 1976. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1978 pp. 15-19. Roland Mackamul, "GehOrbiidung - wo und wann (I)?" in Schweizerische Musikzeitung, 123/2 (March/Apri11983) p. 99. 142 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Training were needed. He also recommended that Aural Training be taught in such a way that students could become acquainted with current methods in order to use them in their own teaching. IS Although a German respondent stated that outstanding teachers were teaching at his Musikhochschule, and that the reason for students' lack of interest could be attributed mainly to their negative attitudes towards the subject, he left room for the fact that the problem might also lie in the teaching system. The same respondent commented on his own experiences as an Aural Training student: "Were my current skills in aural understanding developed through the Aural Training I received as a student? If so, then only to a small extent. I then, in my thinking, made use of 'guitar grip images'. (It is only later that I did not need these anymore.) I learnt my ability of abstract thinking elsewhere. "19 Werner Piitz in all fairness asked whether the cause for the general uneasiness towards Aural Training on the side of the student did not lie deeper than inadequate methods.20 A German Aural Training lecturer, for example, expressed his concern that the visit paid by the researcher at that particular institution in 1989 was two years too early. He was still developing his Aural Training'system. The question on the goals to be achieved after the two-year period was, however, not clearly answered. In a survey on students' viewpoints on the effectiveness of Aural Training, Shey-Tzer Yao found that only 52.8% understood the instructional goals and objectives. On the question whether the teacher communicated the teaching goals clearly at the beginning of the lessons, only an average of 32.2 % responded positively. Confusion regarding instructional objectives normally leads to unsystematic teaching procedures. This could be seen in the students' responses on the question whether aural skills training material was compiled systematically. Averaged responses for both institutions examined were: Yes - 26.6%; No - 37%; No idea - 35.9%.21 As a result of inadequate aural teaching systems and teaching approaches, primary and secondary music teachers concentrated mainly on producing technically trained instrumentalists with an underdeveloped musical IS Hans-Dieter Resch, "Gedanken tiber eine systematische GehOrbildung im Instrumentalunterricht" in Josef MayrKern (Ed.), Materialien und Dokumente aus der Musikpadagogik, Band 6: Musikalische Grundschulung an Ausbildungstatten fiir Musikberufe - Dokumentation iiber die D-A-CH- Tagung 1976. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1978 p. 85. 19 Researcher's translation of "Sind mein jetzigen Fertigkeiten in auditivem Erfassen durch den damaligen GbUnterricht mit aufgebaut worden? leh mein wenn, dann zum geringen Teil. Damals dachte ich in von der Gitarre vorgegebenen Griffbildern, (erst viel spater brauchte ich ihr Griffsystem nicht mehr.) Meine Abstraktionsfahigkeit babe ich anders ge1ernt." 20 Werner Piitz, "Zur Horerziehung in der musikalischen Berufsausbildung" in Musik und Bildung, 63/5 (May 1972) p. 232. 21 Shey-Tzer Yao, The Aural Skills Development Program in Music Departments of Two Post-Secondary Institutions in Taiwan: Status and Recommendations. Doctoral dissertation, Ball State University 1990.'Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1990 pp. 74, 55 and 61. The question can be asked if results from Asian countries can be discussed together with results gathered from Western music institutions. It is, however, a well-known fact that music studies in Japan and Taiwan are very much influenced by Western music traditions, a fact which can be seen in the 84% of the students who indicated that the teaching material excluded traditional Chinese music. . 143 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za consciousness)2 This snowballed funher in that students did not meet the required standards of the aural entrance examinations at Musikhoehsehulen and universities. In an interview in 1989, Professor Markus Ulbrich of the Staatliehe Hoehsehule fUr Musik Freiburg voiced his concern that many illiterate students (musically speaking) begin to study music without adequate music reading and writing skills. This aspect has also been commented on by the German and American authors Piitz, Marbaix, Ganter, Vetter, and Wennerstrom.23 Although no written evidence of poorly prepared students embarking on a B.Mus or B.A. degree at South African universities could be found, the researcher witnessed this problem as a teaching assistant at two different universities in the RSA.24 Bernita Douglas also stated that Aural Training had been partially neglected in the general South African music education situation, and more specifically in piano instruction on an elementary leve1.2SThis disregard of the importance of Aural Training will definitely produce inadequately prepared prospective music students. Some of the results obtained in a seven-year longitudinal survey at the Universities of Stellenbosch and Cape Town on musical aptitude were therefore not surprising. Not only did students at both institutions scored noticeably lower in the Musical Sensitivity part than in the other two parts of Gordon's Musical Aptitude Profile, but the correlations 22 23 24 2S Only a few articles and Aural Training books were written for young musicians. One book on the development of music literacy starting with newborns and young children Wasalso found: Arpad Darazs and Jay Stephen, Sight and Sound - Visual Aid to Melody and Hannony. Oceanside, New York: Boosey and Hawkes, 1965. Ernst-Gunter Fischer, "Moglichkeiten und Grenzen einer musikalischen Grundschulung der Sieben- bis Vierzehnjahrigen" in Josef Mayr-kern (Ed.), Materialien und Dokumente aus der Musikpadagogik, Band 6: Musikalische Grundschulung an Ausbildungsstatten fUr Musikberufe - Dokumentation fiber die D-A-CHTagung 1976. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1977 pp. 73-75. Valentino Ragni, "GehOrbildung in der vorschulpflichtigen Musikerziehung" in Klaus Obermayer (Ed.), Materialien und Dokumente aus der Musikpadagogik, Band 15: Horen - Horchen - Verstehen. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1987 pp. 49-55. Edwin E. Gordon, A Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children. Chicago: G.I.A., 1990. Werner Piitz, "Zur Horerziehung in der musikalischen Berufsausbildung" in Musik und Bildung, 63/5 (May 1972) p. 232. Marcel de Marbaix, "Rhythmisches Erfassen bei der musikalischen Grundschulung"; Claus Ganter, "BewuJ3tes Horen - Musiktheorie als Horhilfe"; Hans-Joachim Vetter, "Studienvorbereitende Ausbildung an Musikschulen in der Bundesrepublik", all in Josef Mayr-kern (Ed.), Materialien und Dokumente aus der Musikpadagogik, Band 6: Musikalische Grundschulung an Ausbildungsstlitten fUr Musikberufe - Dokumentation fiber die D-A-CH-Tagung 1976. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1977 pp. 27, 59 and 67. Mary H. Wennerstrom, "The Undergraduate Core Music Curriculum at Indiana University" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 3/2 (Fall 1989) p. 163. At most South African universities with music departments additional Aural Training entrance tests are not required if students meet the other set requirements. Bernita Douglas, Riglyne vir gelntegreerde gehooropleiding by kIavieronderrig. Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Stellenbosch 1990 pp. 1-2. 144 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za between the sensitivity part and achievements in Aural Training were also very low.26 The purpose of the sensitivity test is to choose the best artistic performance of two played musical phrases. The fact that students scored lower in this section of the test showed that they were merely technically trained instrumentalists. Because of the musical illiteracy on the side of students, mainly concentrates on rudimentary the first level of Aural Training aspects such as intervals, scales and primary at tertiary institutions chords.27 This again leads to primary and secondary level teachers barely being able to rise above the elementary aural level. In order to solve this problem, entrance requirements courses have been offered at a few universities courses.30 However, have been. raised at some music departments.28 Remedial in the USA,29 and a number of Musikhochschulen offer preparatory in the survey of the Institute for Music Theory Pedagogy II, only 35% of the respondents indicated that their theory programme had a preparatory division.31 Advanced solrege courses and assistantship concentrating on music psychological programmes have been recently offered aspects, the reformulation of traditional at some USA universities, instructional practice to reflect the cognitive process theory, and concepts of assessment designed to take into account these new perspectives. courses aim to provide the necessary background 26 27 28 and experience for teaching Aural Training at any level.32 Also Paul Loeb van Zuilenburg, "Die Gebruik van Gordon se 'Musical Aptitude Profile' by die keuring van Voltydse Musiekstudente van die UniversiteiteStellenbosch en Kaapstad" in South African Journal of Musicology, 11 (1991) p. 48, as well as information not included in the article. The researcher acted as a research assistant under the guidance of Dr. Loeb van Zuilenburg. Examples of entrance tests and [mal examination requirements appear in Appendix J. Roland Mackamul, 1983) p. 99. "GehOrbildung - wo und wann?" in Schweizerische Mary H. Wennerstrom, "The Undergraduate Core Music Curriculum Music Theory Pedagogy, 3/2 (Fall 1989) p. 163. 29 30 31 32 These Musikzeitung, 123/2 (Marchi April at Indiana University" in Journal of David Ward-Steinman, "Comprehensive Musicianship at San Diego State University" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 1/2 (Fall 1987) p. 137. In a survey conaucted during the Institute for Music Theory Pedagogy, the following responses were given to the question "If students do not meet the expectation, how are they prepared to enter the theory sequence"?" • credit rudiments course which counts orily as elective (24 %) . • rudiments course for credit (21 %) • individual tutoring (19%) • non-eredit rudiments course (17 %) • other (19%) Roger E. Foltz and Alice M. Lanning, "Report on the Institute for Music Theory Pedagogy Studies II" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 3/2 (Fall 1989) p. 246. The Aural Training introductory course offered by Ursula Flinspach at the Stuttganer Musikschule as well as weekend and summer courses serve as an example of this. Preliminary courses are, for example, also presented at the Musikhochschule des Saarlandes. Hans Lonnendonker, "Musiktheoretisches Grundstudium an der Musikhochschule des Saarlandes in Saarbriicken" in Josef Mayr-Kem (Ed.), Materialien und Dokumente aus der Musikpadagogik, Band 6: Musikalische Grundschulung an Ausbildungstatten fUr Musikberufe _ Dokumentation fiber die D-A-CH-Tagung 1976. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1978 p. 47. Roger E. Foltz and Alice M. Lanning, "Report on the Institute for Music Theory Pedagogy Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 3/2 (Fall 1989) p. 249. Studies II" in Lyle Davidson, Larry Scripp and Joan Meyaard, "Sightsinging Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 2/1 (Spring 1988) p. 8. of Music" in 145 at New England Conservatory Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za trying to compensate with the opportunity for the need for qualified Aural lecturers, some German Musikhochschulen provide students of choosing Aural Training and Music Theory as a second major subject. At the Hochschule der Kiinste in Berlin the researcher observed that students majoring in Aural Training had to give "trial" lessons to junior students. (An example of such a lesson appears in Appendix K.) Aural Training major students at the Staatliche Hochschule fUr Musik und Darstellende Kunst Stuttgan are required to attend a colloquy where methodological issues are discussed. No advanced courses of Aural Training were available in the RSA. According to information gathered by Naude, extra courses on the didactics of Aural Training are not the norm. This field was normally covered "incidentally", one lecturer mentioned, in a general methodological subject on various music disciplines. as At the University of Stel- lenbosch, a one-semester course on the methodology of Aural Training was offered to students majoring in Music Education. 33 Although the problem of not having enough thoroughly qualified lecturers has been recognised by a few institutions, there is still a valid need for a broader recognition of this phenomenon in order to provide lecturers with sound pedagogical credentials and a larger consensus as to the fundamental goal of Aural Training and the specific goals to be strived at. This will result in prospective students being well prepared. 3.2 Organisational aspects The organisational comprehensive aspects addressed in the questionnaire were curriculum planning with regard to "isolated" or (integrated) Aural Training, weekly instruction time available per student, sufficiency of instruction time, form of instruction (individual/group classes), sizes of the groups, preferences regarding the form of instruction and group size, and the availability of assistants for practice and/or remedial purposes. Regarding the position of Aural Training, it is clear that it was treated as a separate subject in all three countries. The results indicated that 85.7% of the lecturers in the RSA, 76.8% in the FRG and 71.7% in the USA (overall response rate 75.1 %) taught Aural Training as separate classes within the music curriculum.34 The practical hypothesis Aural Training is treated as a separate subject in the curricula of ternary institutions was thus proved to be true. Compared German to the RSA and USA results (14.3 % and 1.9% respectively), respondents indicated instrumental performance 33 34 both "isolation" and "integration". it was conspicuous that 20.3 % of the This could imply .that subjects other than may fall under the domain of Music Theory, as was often the case in the USA, but received Anna C. Naude, In Ondersoek na die geskiktheid van sillabi vir gehoortoetse in gegradeerde sameos. Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Stellenbosch 1987 pp. 245-257. musiekek- Pembrook and Riggins found in their survey that 60 % of the responding schools in the USA scheduled separate classes for Aural Training while 37% incorporated aural skills into other classes, for example written theory. Randall G. Pembrook and H. Lee Riggins, "'Send Help!': Aural Skills Instruction in U.S. Colleges and Universities" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 4/2 (Fall 1990) p. 233. 146 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za separate treatment.3S On the other hand, it could also reflect a more comprehensive approach where Music Theory is taught from an aural point of view, and where Aural Training is taught as applied Music Theory. One German respondent, for example, explained that it sometimes happened that he constructed his music theory teaching merely through listening. Other examples of comprehensive approaches in Germany could also be seen in the occasional presentation of subjects such as Aural Analysis (Horanalyse).36 Although a comprehensive mentioned approach was pursued at certain universities this, and only one respondent indicated in the USA, only two USA respondents both separate subject/course and pan of the Music Theory Classes. One RSA respondent indicated both, and one German respondent pointed out that Aural Training also Eurhythmics) taught at Musikhochschulen. According to formed part of a rhythmic education course (Jaques-Dalcroze the Pembrook-Riggins survey, a number of respondents who taught in integrated programmes preferred separate classes and vice versa. Their general conclusion was that the pendulum had swung away from the integrated approach favoured at the beginning of the 1980s.37 In all three countries a comprehensive approach to Aural Training was seemingly relinquished in favour of an "isolated" approach. No further questions appeared in the questionnaire as to the nature of this isolation. It is possible that, although Observations curricularly scheduled as a separate. subject, a comprehensive teaching approach was followed. in both the RSA and FRG, as well as the results of the applied Aural Training methods discussed in the next section, however, revealed that cross-references to other subjects were made only occasionally ~d that the subject was treated in isolation, concentrating merely on drill and practice. The fact that Aural Training was acknowledged recognition as a subject in its own right, however, does not reflect its degree of and status. In a survey conducted during the Institute for Music Theory Pedagogy II in the USA, a question was asked on the percentages apportioned to Aural Training in examinations were under one course number. The majority of respondents 23% of the respondents one credit was given 3S 36 when written and aural skills (28 %) indicated a percentage of approx. 25 %. Only indicated approx. 50%.38 Damshroder complained that at the university where he taught only to Aural Training compared to the four credits given to theory .39 Also, for examination According to the Lecture Directory of the Hochschule jUr Musik Wurzburg 1991, the subjects Instrumentation, Aural Training, Figured bass and Harmony and Counterpoint fall under the domain of Music Theory. Mary H. Wennerstrom, "The Undergraduate Core Music Curriculum at Indiana University" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 3/2 (Fall 1989) pp. 153-176. Michael R. Rogers, Teaching Approaches in Music Theory - An Overview of Pedagogical Philosophies. Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1984 pp. 3-5. The presentation of these subjects was discussed thoroughly in Chapter Two under the heading of Isolation vs Integration and Comprehension. 37 38 39 Randall G. Pembrook and H. Lee Riggins, "'Send Help!': Aural Skills Instruction Universities" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 4/2 (Fall 1990) p. 239. in U.S. Colleges Roger E. Foltz and Alice M. Lanning, "Report on the Institute for Music Theory Pedagogy Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 3/2 (Fall 1989) p. 248. Studies II" in David A. Damschroder, "Flexibility in the Theory Classroom: Strategies for the Management of Diversity" Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 3/2 (Fall 1989) p. 185. 147 and in Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za purposes at some South African universities, Aural Training formed a sub-minimum of 10% - 40% of another "linked" subject. 40 It is therefore not totally surprising that students seemed to look down on this subject and did not invest much time in mastering essential skills necessary to be a literate musician. A few respondents indicated in the Pembrook-Riggins survey that Aural Training was not fully appreciated by many students, teachers and administrators. This fact was also supported by Collins.41 One German respondent spontaneously mentioned that the same trend could be noticed at his Musikhochschule: "Aural Training is for - I dare say - all students the most "subordinate" subject of all. Because of this, most lecturers only try to help students to pass the final aural examination .... We as lecturers will have to accept the fact that this instruction possibility - now as then - will not be used optimally. Responsible for this are the human weaknesses of the students, as well as for example the fact that some Aural Training classes do not take place due to the many holidays during the summer Semester, and because of many extra orchestral rehearsals. "42 As to the fonn in which instruction takes place, the results undoubtedly showed that group tuition was practised by a large majority of lecturers in all three countries (RSA 100%, FRG 79.7%, USA 96.2%, ALL 86%). Only 10.1 % (ALL) made use of both individual and group tuition. Reasons for the application of group tuition were that individual training was not cost effective and did not motivate enough (RSA). Furthermore, polyphonic music could be sung in group classes (FRG). In comparison to the fact that group tuition was indicated as by a large majority of lecturers, the ideal teaching situation as perceived by 53.3 % of all the respondents included both individual and group tuition. This discrepancy between reality and preferences could be clearly seen in the responses of all three countries. One hundred percent of the RSA respondents indicated group tuition, whereas only 57.1 % preferred this type of teaching, with 42.9% preferring both individual and group classes. The same situation existed in the FRG (reality - 79.7%; preference _ 50.7%) and USA, with the biggest difference in the responses between reality and preference visible in the USA results. Although 96.2% of the USA respondents taught classes made up of groups, 75.5% preferred a mixture of individual and group tuition. It can be stated with certainty that the majority of lecturers were not satisfied with their organisational planning regarding teaching settings. 40 41 42 Anna C. Naude, 'n Ondersoek na die geskiktheid van sillabi vir gehoortoetse in gegradeerde musiekeksamens. Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Stellenbosch 1987, pp. 245-257. Randall G. Pembrook and H. Lee Riggins, "'Send Help!': Aural Skills Instruction in U.S. Colleges and Universities" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 4/2 (Fall 1990) p. 239. Researcher's translation of "Die Gehorbildung ist flir - ich wage zu sagen: alle Studenten - das nebensiichlichste Nebenfach uberhaupt. Da es existiert, versucht jeder Lehrer, die Studenten soweit zu bringen, daB sie die PrUfung schaffen. ... Wir Lehrer werden uns damit abfinden mussen, daB diese Moglichkeit - wie eh und je - nicht optimal genutzt wird. Verantwortlich sind die menschlichen Schwiichen der Studenten und z.B. der Umstand, daB im Sommersemester wegen der vielen Feiertage und der Verpflichtung zu Orchesterproben manche GbStunde ausfaIlt. " 148 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za With regard to the weekly instruction time available per student, both the majority of the respondents in the RSA (28.5%) and FRG (59.4%) indicated sixty minutes per week.43 Thirty and forty-five minute classes were indicated by 15.9% of the FRG respondents in each of the two time categories. In the USA the majority of respondents (50.9 %) indicated that two hours were available for aural instruction. Another 30.2 % indicated three hour classes. 44 Apart from commenting in brief words, two respondents reported in more detail on their curricula. One USA respondent described his first-year aural curriculum as consisting of four hours per week which were divided into two hours for Dictation (including composition exercises where the students were required to write musical materials according to given parameters and gave vocal performances of these away from the piano or sound source), and two hours Sight Singing material from the music literature using the solfege system. A German respondent at the Staatliche Hochschule fUr Musik Freiburg im Breisgau explained that Aural Training was taught in several classes such as: Written solfige exercises (tonal and atonal one part dictation): 120 minutes per week, two semesters long; Verbal solfige exercises (e.g. declamation of rhythms and sight singing): 60 minutes per week for a class of four students, or 15 minutes for individual classes once a week, two semesters long; Harmonic hearing as part of Music Theory classes: 60 minutes; Two and three part dictation: 120 minutes, two semesters long; Non-mandat0'Y..subjects such as "Live-dictation" - examples from the music literature in their original settings. Observations made on the curriculum planning of Aural Training at the Staatliche Hochschule fUr Musik und Darstellende Kunst Stuttgart from 1988-1991 were as follows: Individual Aural Training: 30 minutes per week Practical group classes in the form of seminars I-III, 60 minutes weekly per class Preparatory classes for students majoring in ML (instrumental music teachers), SM and KM (teachers for Music Education in general schools as well as students studying to become cantors): 60 minutes weekly per class; the preparatory classes should be taken in the last semester before the examination. Tutorial: approx. 30 minutes per week After a period of four semesters the examination for ML (six semesters for SM/KM) should be taken. The SM and KM examinations are more difficult than the ML examination. Extra non-mandatory seminars on different aspects of Aural Training can also be attended. At most Musikhochschulen in the FRG students took their final examination at the end of the four semester period, and had to sit additional entrance tests to major in Aural Training with Music Theory as a second major subject. 43 It should, however, be kept in mind that 42.9% of the South African respondents did not answer this question. The reason for this is not clear. It could be that this aspect of the questionnaire was not considered to be important, or was overlooked. 44 This information complies with the survey by Pembrook and Riggins who found that 61 % of separate freshmen Aural Training classes included 100 minutes of instruction, while 16% met for 150 minutes per week, ranging from 50 to 250 minutes per week. Overall responses averaged 177 minutes of instruction per week. The results for sophomore classes were similar with 57% indicating 100 minutes of instruction per week and 16% 150 minutes. (Mean average: 111 minutes per week.) Typical institutional degree requirements included 4 semesters. Only 4% of the separate classes were subdivided into specific classes for one aural skill (e.g. sight singing.) Randall G. Pembrook and H. Lee Riggins, '''Send Help!': Aural Skills Instruction in U.S. Colleges and Universities" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 4/2 (Fall 1990) p. 233. Results from the Institute for Music Theory Pedagogy II also indicated a majority of 66 % respondents having a four semester theory sequence. Six semester or more were only indicated by 15%. Roger E. Foltz and Alice M. Lanning, "Report on the Institute for Music Theory Pedagogy Studies II" III Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 3/2 (Fall1989) p. 252. 149 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za According to observations made during study periods (1979-1983) and (1985-1986) at the Universities of the Orange Free State and Stellenbosch semesters). in the RSA, Aural Training courses had to be completed within three years (six Students had to pass tests and examinations administered on one level (within the duration of a year) to be able to move to the next level. Based on respondents' spontaneous comments which appear in Appendix G, the above information taken from the USA Pembrook-Riggins departments followed diverse and information survey, general trends could be recognised. First of all, the individual music time schedules. Although trends of 60 minutes' instruction time per week were observable in the RSA and FRG results, and one 120 to 180 minutes in the USA results, this was only indicated by a narrow majority margin. Secondly, Aural Training was integrated into Music Theory classes of X minutes. Thirdly, the time available depended on the seniority of the students (USA), the level of development (FRG), and the subject in which the student majored (FRG). Fourthly, additional Dictation Musikhochschulen. classes and concentrated preparation classes such as, for example, Aural Analysis, for the final aural examination were available at some Students could also attend more than one extra class during a semester. When a student made full use of this opportunity, in Stuttgart. extra, non-mandatory Fifthly, he/she could have up to five hours of aural instruction at, for example, the Musikhochschule at several music departments additional use of programmed in all three countries students had the opportunity of making instruction facilities. Sixthly, at some music departments Aural Training was divided into smaller segments (e.g. Sight Singing and Dictation classes) taken separately. Seventhly, aural courses should have been be completed within a period of four to six semesters. Finally, students in the FRG could major in Aural Training and Music Theory as a second major subject at some Musikhochschulen, move on to an advanced Aural Training class at some music departments. and students in the USA could To the researcher's knowledge no such courses were available in the RSA. The majority of respondents from the USA (73.6%), however, indicated that the available two to three hours of instruction time was not sufficient. In both the other two countries the majority of respondents found the instruction time sufficient (RSA: 57.1 %, FRG: 49.3%). depended on the developmental Seven respondents level of the student. from all countries mentioned that the sufficiency For good students the time was sufficient and for weaker students insufficient. It is conspicuous that there was only a marginal 8.7% difference between the "sufficient" cient" (40.6%) answers of the FRG respondents. (49.3%) and "not suffi- The instruction time could be sufficient when other, non-mandatory subjects were included in the syllabus, giving the student the opportunity of receiving up to five hours of instruction at some institutions. Yet, this aspect of non-mandatory subjects was not present at all Musikhochschulen assumed that these lecturers found the available instruction time insufficient. and it can be Comments by a few FRG respondents indicated that the time was insufficient: Not sufficient for students with inadequate entrance preparation (FRG); Not sufficient in sophomore year (USA); It's never sufficient unless on a daily basis (RSA); This is a complicated issue. The time is insufficient to give most, but not all, students a true mastery of the skills we are trying to promote in the courses themselves, term by term. But some students are actually able to achieve mastery in a much shorter time. For them, however, there is insufficient time to carry them to a true mastery of aural skills, hearing large-scale forms and key relationships, four-part polyphony, etc. (USA); Never enough (USA); Not ideally sufficient 150 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za (USA); Never sufficient but practical (USA); We are planning flexible instruction time - Brass and percussion students need more Aural Training - (They most often have the weakest ears!) (FRG). The reason for the dissatisfaction with the time available on the part of the large majority of USA respondents could be partly related to the indicated group sizes, and the discrepancy between actual group sizes and preferred group sizes. More instruction time, on the other hand, was available which balances the differences between the countries. The fact that USA respondents were dissatisfied with the time available could therefore also be an indication that they put a higher value on the development of musical understanding through Aural Training than in the other two countries. This speculation can be supported by the increasing number of articles published in American Journals and other subject-related periodicals, as well as by the two conferences held on Aural Training by the Institute for Music Theory Pedagogy in 1989 and 1992. Questions on the actual and preferred sizes, cross-tabulation calculations between the time-available question and the group sizes question, as well as respondents comments revealed that: I (a) The group sizes in the USA were significantly larger than the sizes indicated in the RSA and FRG. The majority of the USA respondents indicated groups sizes of 11-12 (18.9%), 13-15 (32.1 %) and 16-20 (26.4%), thus ranging from 11-20. It is also interesting to note that, although not the norm, only in the USA groups larger than 30 students per group were indicated by four respondents. One respondent indicated that groups of 100-160 met for two hours per week! Group sizes in the other two countries were significantly smaller. The majority of the RSA respondents indicated group sizes of 5-6 (42.9%) and 9-10 (42.9%), thus ranging from 510. In the FRG the major group sizes were 2, 3-4 (in both cases 15.2%),5-6 (31,8%), 7-8 (15.2%) and 9-10 (22.7%), thus ranging from 2-10. Small groups were preferred in all three countries: RSA 5-6 (42.9%) and 7-8 (28.6%); FRG 2-3 (17.4%), 4 (20.3%) and 5-6 (33.3%); USA 9-10 (30.2%) and 11-12 (26.4%). The differences between reality and preference were very small the RSA and FRG. It can be concluded that lecturers in the RSA and FRG were satisfied with their group sizes. The majority of respondents in the USA, however, preferred smaller groups than the actual 9-20 students per group indicated earlier. (b) In the RSA the majority of 28.6% of the respondents had groups of 8-10 students in 60 minute classes. In the FRG the majority of 43.5% respondents indicated groups of 2-6 students in a 45-60 minute class. Another 34.8% indicated that they had 7-12 students during a weekly 45-60 minute class. In comparison to the RSA and FRG results, cross-tabulation calculations revealed that groups of 13-20 students received 120 minutes per week aural instruction in the USA (32.1 %). (c) The degree of achievement influenced the size of the group and different tasks required different group sizes. Smaller groups were involved in classes which included performance skills such as Sight Singing and other oral assignments (ALL). Written assignments such as Dictation and Aural Analysis seminars were taught in larger groups (ALL). One RSA respondent indicated that he divided the two-hour instruction time per class into three portions: a larger group for seminars (30 students), a smaller group for practical work (15 students doing, for example, Sight Singing, rhythm declamation, keyboard harmony) and a very small group for extra drill with a teaching assistant (5 students). A final curricular aspect addressed was the presence of teaching assistants to help weaker students or to act as practice partners. From the overall response percentages it was clear that 53.5 % of the lecturers in the three countries did not have teaching assistants. Only 42.9% of the RSA and 33.3% of the FRG respondents answered positively to this question. The majority of 58.5 % of the USA respondents, however, indicated that they do have teaching 151 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za assistants.4s Reasons for not having assistants, based on the comments by respondents, were that courses could be repeated (FRG), and individual extra instruction for weak students was taken over by the -lecturers themselves (FRG). The costs involved (FRG) and the additional offering of computer-based reinforcement were also mentioned (ALL). Regarding the organisational aspects of Aural Training, it can be concluded that although Aural Training has reached the stage where the majority of respondents have recognised it as a subject important enough to be scheduled separately in the music curriculum, much pioneering w.ork should be done in order to help students and lecturers realise that it has the same value as other theoretical and practical subjects. Although classes were presented as group tuition in all three countries, respondents preferred a mixture of individual and group tuition. A small majority of respondents in both the RSA and FRG was satisfied with the available instruction time. The USA respondents, however, indicated that it was not sufficient, a fact that could be related to the larger group sizes. It can furthermore be concluded that the instruction time was not ideally sufficient in all countries, Le. not sufficient to lead most students to the "true mastery of aural skills". Sufficiency depended on outside factors such as pre-university preparation, number of semesters, availability of non-mandatory subjects, group sizes and achievement levels. 4S The results for the USA comply with the results of the Institute for Music Theory Pedagogy II where 56 % of the respondents indicated that they had teaching assistants. As to the role of this assistance, the outcome was as follows: Tutor individual students (89%); Lead drill or 'help' sessions outside the regular class meeting time (59%); Lead drill sessions in aural skills in the absence of the primary instructor during the class meeting time, either occasionally or regularly (54 %); Assist in theory instruction with the primary instructor during the class meeting time either occasionally or regularly (30%); Teach theory sections in the absence of the primary instructor either occasionally or regularly (54%); Assist in the grading of papers (46%). Roger E. Foltz and Alice M. Lanning, "Report on the Institute for Music Theory Pedagogy Studies II" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 3/2 (Fall 1989) pp. 249-250. 152 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 3.3 Methodological aspects This section of the questionnaire included in Aural Training. mainly addressed methodological issues on the nature and variety of methods Whereas one question dealt with all methods that could possibly be applied, the other questions focused on two single components, namely Sight Singing and Aural Analysis. The main reason for this was that all other methods are related to inner hearing and structural thinking. Procedures for teaching Sight Singing and reasons for neglecting Aural Analysis, as well as the style periods used in the latter, were surveyed. As to the nature of these questions, methods indicated. methodological no further information The exact procedures of the dictation was gathered of a melody concerning the details of the different was, for example, not examined. The aspect of Aural Training is a very personal matter, and it seemed impossible to formulate questions in such a way that they would have covered all the different nuances of teaching and still be statistically manageable. Such an investigation tertiary institutions, requires a different type of research which includes observations as well as a thorough study of the methods used in published of Aural Training classes at and unpublished sources, as was done in Chapter Two. The efficiency of one method compared to another can also be statistically investigated, in that results obtained by subjects in a pre-test are correlated with the results obtained in a post-test after they have received different types of instruction. The survey conducted by Beverly Ann Martin is an example of such research procedures.46 observed twenty-five students who Gary Potter subjects taking dictation,47 whereas Gary Karpinsky made use of a case study method of a few exhibited representative deficiencies in order to draw conclusions on students I "dictational " behaviour. 48 The first methodological aspect to be discussed is the different methods indicated by the respondents. An overview of the results appears in the following Table: 46 47 48 Beverly Ann Martin, The Effect of Hand Signs, Verbal Tonal syllables, and Letter Representations of Tonal Syllables on the Verbal and Symbolic Acquisition of Tonal Skills by First Grade Students. Doctoral dissertation, University of Oklahoma 1987. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1987. Gary Potter, "Identifying successful Dictation Strategies" in Journal 1990) pp. 63-71. of Music Theory Gary S. Karpinsky, n A Model for Music Perception and Its Implications Music Theory Pedagogy, 4/2 (Fall 1990) pp. 191-192. 153 Pedagogy, in Melodic Dictation" 4/1 (Spring in Journal of Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Table 3.1 Response frequencies of indicated Aural Training methods RSA USA FRG Hand signs (Tonic doh) 2 (28.6%) 10 (14.5%) Indication of meter/beat 5 (71.4%) 24 (34.8%) Conducting using free gestures 0(0%) 3 (4.3%) Other movements 2 (28.6%) 2 (2.9%) Singing material that was heard 7 (100%) 58(84.1%) Clapping/intoning material that was heard 5 (71.4%) 47 (68.1 %) Playing on keyboard instruments material that was heard 5 (71.4%) 36 (52.2%) Playing on other instruments material that was heard 2 (28.2%) 11 (15.9%) To clap rhythms from sight 7 (100%) 50 (72.5%) Sight Singing 7 (100%) 60 (87.0%) Dictation 7 (100%) 63 (91.3%) Error detection 6 (85.7%) 46 (66.7%) Improvisation tasks 2 (28.6%) 24 (34.8%) Graphic representations 2 (28.6%) 21 (30.4%) Verbal descriptions making use of music theory terminology 6 (85.7%) 55 (79.7%) Verbal descriptions making use of self-developed terminology 2 (28.6%) 22 (31.9%) Transposition 1 (14.3 %) 5 (7.2%) Aural Analysis 1 (14.3%) 5 (7.2%) Imagination tasks 0(0%) 6 (8.7%) Other methods 3 (42.9%) 11 (15.9%) Missing cases: 0(0%) N = 7 (The cumulative frequencies o (0%) N = ALL 5 (9.4%) 17 (13.2%) 32 (60.4%) 61 (47.3%) 3 (5.7%) 6 (4.7%) 2 (3.8%) 6 (4.7%) 40 (75.5%) 105 (81.1 %) 25 (47.2%) 77 (59.7%) 12 (22.6%) 53 (41.1 %) 7 (13.2%) 20 (15.5%) 41 (77.4%) 98 (76.0%) 53 (100%) 120 (93.0%) 52 (98.1%) 122 (94.6%) 36 (67.9%) 88 (68.2%) 12 (22.6%) 38 (29.5%) 18 (34.0%) 41 (31.8%) 37 (69.8%) 98 (76.6%) 4 (7.5%) 28 (21.7%) o (0%) 6 (4.1%) 1 (1.9%) 7 (5.4%) o 6 (4.7%) 4 (0%) (7.5%) .. 0 (0%) 69 N = 53 . 18 (14.0%) 0 N (0%) = 129 exceed the value of 100% because of multiple indications.) Other methods included the use of rhythmic solfege syllables; the playing of rhythms on students' own instruments and xylophones; combinations of hands, feet and voice; completion of antecedent-consequent phrases in a written form or through improvisation; Transcription from recordings; Interval and chord recognition; Combination of theoretical knowledge and practical experience, e.g. four-part harmony: SAB are dictated and the tenor should be composed according to four-part harmony theory rules. The original SATB example is then played in order to check and correct the tenor; To play one or more voices while singing another voice; Texture and timbre discrimination; Memorising melodic/rhythmic patterns; To sing modulation exercises, e.g. the last notes of a phrase form the beginning notes of the next phrase; Singing paradigm structures (chords, intervals, scales). A few respondents further mentioned that they combined exercises, for example, conducting the meter while sight singing. From the results it could be clearly seen that although a wide spectrum of methods was indicated in all three countries (major trends: RSA 8-13 methods per lecturer, FRG 6-10 methods per lecturer, USA 4-12 methods per lecturer, ALL 6-10 methods per lecturer), the hypothesis More emphasis is placed on Sight Singing and Dictation than on other teaching methods was proved to be true. These two methods were furthermore also indicated by a very high percentage of the respondents. In the RSA, both Sight Singing and Dictation were indicated by all respondents, and in the 154 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za FRG, Dictation was indicated by 91.3 % and Sight Singing by 87 % of the respondents. In the USA, Sight Singing was indicated by 100% and Dictation by 98.1 % of the respondents.49 According percentages to the ranking order Table in which the indicated methods are ranked from the highest to the lowest (Table 3.2), Dictation was ranked first and Sight singing second for all three countries calculated as a whole. There was, however, descriptions using Music only a marginal difference of 0.4% between the first and second rankings. Theory terminology and Error detection Verbal were ranked third and fourth in the overall response frequencies. From this Table it was also clear that drill and practice exercises overshadowed approaches. Methods such as Graphic Representations, terminology, Aural Analysis, Imagination Tasks, as well as Conducting using free gestures, were indicated by very Improvisation, Verbal Descriptions more creative using self-developed small minorities of the respondents (4.7 % - 31. 8 %). There was also reason to believe that Sight Singing and Dictation form the major part of aural instruction most time was devoted examination requirements to the development presented of these skills. in Appendix J confirmed Examples from different entrance and that tests and final this. Results from the Institute for Music Theory Pedagogy II show that the majority of respondents (84 %) indicated 15 to more than 20 minutes scheduled for either melodic or harmonic dictation during a fifty-minute class. In the same survey, 88% of the participants they assessed Sight Singing progress through weekly assigned melodies tested individually indicated that in the class.sO This activity could take up at least another 15 to 20 minutes. A simple calculation showed that 60 to 70 percent of the instruction time was thus taken up by Sight Singing and Dictation, skills. As mentioned earlier, leaving only 30 to 40 percent to develop other an average of 6-10 methods were applied per respondent. When Sight Singing and Dictation are subtracted from this total, seven methods remain to be included in the 30 to 40 percent of instruction time. 49 These results agree with the Pembrook-Riggins results which indicated that for freshmen, Sight Singing was mostly emphasised, with Dictation and Recognition/Identification in the second place. For sophomores, Dictation and Sight Singing were emphasised almost equally. Error Detection received the least amount of instructional time. Randall G. Pembrook and H. Lee Riggins, "'Send Help!': Aural Skills Instruction Universities" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 4/2 (Fall 1990) pp. 237. . so in U.S. Roger E. Foltz and Alice M. Lanning, "Report on the Institute for Music Theory Pedagogy Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 3/2 (Fall 1989) pp. 249-250. 155 Colleges and Studies II" in Sight Singing (87 %) Repetition: Verbal descriptions: (79.7%) Clap/intone Error detection (85.7 %) Verbal descriptions: Music theory terminology Indication of metre (71.4 %) Repetition: clapping Repetition: keyboard instruments Tonic doh hand signs (28.6%) Other movements Repetition: other instruments Improvisation Graphic representations Verbal descriptions: Self-developed terminology Transposition (14.3%) Aural analysis 2 3 4 5 Indication of metre (34.8 %) Improvisation (34.8 %) Verbal descriptions: (31.9%) Graphic representations Repetition: Tonic doh hand signs (14.5%) Imagination Transposition (7.2 %) Aural analysis Conducting Other movements 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 (4.3%) --_._- (2.9%) (8.7%) other instruments terminology (52.2%) (15.9%) (30.4 %) self-developed instruments Repetition: 8 keyboard Error detection (66.7%) 7 clapping (68.1 %) Repetition: 6 rhythms from sight (72.5%) Music Theory terminology singing (84.1 %) Dic~tion Dictation (100%) Sight Singing Repetition: singing Clap/intone rhythms from sight 1 (91.3%) FRG RSA Table 3.2 Ranking of the results of Question eleven other instruments (5.7%) self-developed (3.8%) Aural analysis (1.9%) Other movements Conducting Verbal descriptions: (7.5%) (22.6%) terminology (13.2 %) instruments Tonic doh hand signs (9.4%) Repetition: Repetition: keyboard Improvisation (34 %) clapping (47.2%) Graphic representations Repetition: Indication of metre (60%) Error detection (67.9 %) Music Theory terminology singing (75.5%) rhythms from sight (77%) Verbal descriptions: (69.8%) Repetition: Clap/intone Dictation (98.1 %) Sight Singing (100%) USA singing (81.1 %) clapping (59.7%) keyboard other instruments (4.1 %) Imagination (4.7%) Conducting Other movements Aural analysis (5.4 %) Transposition Tonic doh hand signs (13.2%) Repetition: terminology (41.1 %) (15.5%) self-developed (31. 8 %) instruments (29.5 %) Verbal descriptions: (21.7%) Improvisation Graphic representations Repetition: Indication of metre (47.3 %) Repetition: Error detection (68.2 %) Verbal descriptions: Music Theory temlinology (76.6%) Clap/intone rhythms from sight Repetition: Sight Singing (93 %) Dictation (94.6%) ALL Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Fig. 3.2 Aural Training methods used in all three countries (ALL) 100 80,- 20 0 - .c 0 ~ u •.. ~ :l '" ., ';;; ., !! E '2 ~ '., " E j E <- c C "', c OJ) ';;; ~ c ~ 0 ,9 cu u :;:; oS :c OJ) ., > 0 •.. ., ..., .c ,S g 0 ~ c 0 OJ) '" C .'" c ., ., 's. E E ';;; 'iiil c.. c ';;; ~ E <:l ~ ~ 0 i;;j c ,g C ,S .S .:: :c ,g 1: ., •.. '" i;;j E ~ ., ., 0 .c 05 0 ~ >. >. ., .g ~ ...• c -e ., C 'iiil OJ) C C 1: C OJ) .9 O:i U C OJ) Q OJ) C C ,9 OJ ~ ';; B 'g ~ e c.. g '~ c :~ i ., 1;l ~ :E c.. e! C c 1~ ., ~ ~ C' u .&; U C ,9 c.. .5 ~ w '~ '" ,9 >. OJ) 0 "0 C >. OJ) 0 "0 C '~ '~ !! !! t:" ~ : .~ '" E ! > ., ~ '; c ~ < c ~ C 0 .~ C 'iiil ~ .5 "8 .c OJ E il .c 0 0 ..:. ] '; > > -e ., (J ';;; '" >. ;:; '; ~ ~ C :~ -e ., METHODS As to the various methods used for the development mental representation of pitch', of inner hearing, or as it was put in the questionnaire, 'the results indicated that the Tonic doh method, singing on note names, as well as using neutral syllables such as 1ah, were all indicated by 71.4% of the RSA respondents, the majority of whom used 2-4 methods alongside one another. Singing on absolute note names was the most frequently used method in the FRG (78.3%), 51 whereas the Tonic doh method was indicated by the majority of USA respondents (64.2%).51 In both coun- The USA results were compared with results from the survey conducted at the Institute for Music Theory Pedagogy II and with the results from the Pembrook and Riggins survey: This research 1991 Institute Music Pedagogy Pembrook and Riggins Relative doh (Doh=tonic in maj. and lah=tonic in min.) 64.2% 44% 30% Neutral syllables (e.g. "Iah") Scale-degree numbers Absolute note names 43.4% 34% 30.2% *1 22% 33%* 37% 49.5% 19% Relative doh (Doh=tonic in both maj. and min.) 7.5% * 35% Fixed doh (no specification) Fixed doh (doh=C, di=C sharp) Fixed doh (doh=C and C sharp) 18.9% * * 8% * * * 10% 6% A combination Other * 1.9%26% 1 An 21 % 3% asterisk indicates that the categories did not appear in the corresponding survey(s). 157 * Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za used 1-2 methods alongside each other for the development of inner hearing. tries respondents Other methods included: Nil-method by P. Koch (FRG), lale system (FRG), Scat singing (FRG), Singing with the support of chords (FRG), Work by interval (USA), Chord symbols (USA), Kinetic/Keyboard, We use a modified moveable Doh in singing but do not require students to learn or use the syllables, though many do so (USA); Absolute note names - for alto and tenor clefs (USA). The inevitable question arises as to the best method for developing mental pitch representation. been done as to the comparative projects discussed Investigations in Chapter Little research has values of pedagogical assets within each solmization system. Most of the research Two were conducted with children, and dealt with one or two methods only. on methods such as the use of numbers, absolute solmization and note names could not be found in the realm of tertiary instruction. Timothy A. Smith, however, indicated that, although he preferred the Tonic doh method, a practical pedagogy requires the discrete and systematic acquisition of skills which involves the use of other systems.52 Markus Ulbrich also indicated that a flawless system did not exist. According to him the question should not be which method to use, but rather when to start and how often to practise this method.53 No best method exists for solmization purposes, and at least two if not more different systems should be used in conjunction. Although the formulation of this question left room for the inclusion of different ways of developing audiation skills, the given examples referred only to the use of solmization as a way of developing these skills. This had the effect that only solmization methods were indicated. Only six respondents mentioned the method of imagination and silent reading, trying to hear the music mentally. Even though Sight Singing was considered by many lecturers to be the method for developing the ability to look at a score and imagine the sounds, other methods such as Imagination, Improvisation and Score Reading can also develop this skil1.54 The aspect of structural a moderate percentage concentrating respondents hearing was additionally covered by questions on Aural Analysis. According to the results, of all respondents (68.2 %) included Aural Analysis into their Aural Training programmes, mostly on music from the Baroque (93.2%), Classic (98.9%) who did not include Aural Analysis in their programmes and Romantic periods (91 %). Twelve completed this question, which could be an indication that music from these style periods formed the core material for all other methods. The fact that the Tonic 52 53 54 Timothy A. Smith, A "Comparison of Pedagogical Resources in Solmization Theory Pedagogy, 5/1 (Spring 1991) pp. 21-22. Systems" in Journal of Music Professor Markus Ulbrich interviewed by the researcher on 10 May 1989. According to Edwin Gordon, seven different types and six stages of audiation can be distinguished. Vocal or instrumental reading of music forms only one of these. He described reading as the audiation through notation of what is to be performed before it is performed. Edwin E. Gordon, Learning Sequences in Music: Skill, Content, and Patterns. Chicago: G.I.A: 1989, p. 7. 158 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za doh method was indicated by the majority of USA respondents (64.2 %) supports this suspicion that mostly tonal music is included in Aural Training curricula. 55 Fig. 3.3 Style periods included in Aural Analysis: ALL three countries taken as a whole 100 80 - ii 6 0 ~...............•............................•............................... _.... > u z ~ ; g r:: 40 20 0 [ ~ '" os l:Q '(; c <> ';;; os '" U '~ <> .~ os E E =: =: ~ 0 =: 0 .:3 E '" 'c 0 ';;; '" !:! a. E ~ - 0- g a. ::l ~ ~ ... ';;; C .;;; < ..:. 1l en <> 'c = = .~ W I V'l •• - " 207 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za It can be clearly seen from all these examples that all four children were fully capable of not only creating their own compositions but also encoding them in either graphical or traditional notation. All of them were motivated and the initial 'But I don't know how' quickly changed into complete devotion to their tasks. All of these children practised divergent and convergent, musical-logical and musical-grammatical, and macroscopical and microscopical thinking. As they grew musically, their critical reasoning abilities also developed. It is also interesting to note that all of these children are from either German-Indian, American families. Although all of them attend German schools, There was, apart from aptitudinal differences, German-Philippine or German- they come from various cultural backgrounds. however, no difference in their abilities to immerse themselves in creative tasks. It can thus be concluded that children from various cultures are capable of applying creative tasks as a way of developing their musical consciousness, Gardner and Swanwick-Tillman. an observation which corresponds The model for applying composition with the research as a tool of teaching musical thinking offers boundless advantages and opportunities to incorporate all the ideas of a creative music teacher. *** 208 results of Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za CHAPTER FIVE Summary The number of articles published and conferences held on Aural Training since the 1980s has revealed an increasing sense of awareness of the importance of this subject. This positive tendency could be clearly seen in the overview and list of other investigations presented in the first chapter and in Appendix A. As research endeavours as a rule emphasised isolated facets of the discipline often reflected in selected didactical approaches, music psychological issues and phenomena such as perfect pitch, tone deafness and chromesthesia, there was also a need to examine the Aural Training domain in a broader sense, taking into account all its different aspects. It was only when the investigation of the objectives, teaching philosophies, contents and methods of this subject was completed that problem areas were identified and meaningful recommendations for curriculum changes and teaching approaches could be made. The purpose of this research endeavour therefore was to develop an understanding of the general state of Aural Training as presented at a tertiary level. Based on this outline, recommendations for a theory towards Aural Training were furthermore made. 1. SmfMARY The investigation consisted of three main parts. The first two parts complemented each other in that both theoretical and practical aspects of Aural Training were examined. An in-depth study on the didactical aspects of Aural Training as found in published and unpublished sources formed the essence of the first part. The extent to which these aspects were reflected in the tertiary aural curricula of three countries was examined in the second part. A model of aural instruction for young instrumentalists was presented in the third part. The areas covered by the theoretical survey were the rationale behind Aural Training, teaching ideologies, contents and target group, and methodological approaches. From this survey the following theoretical picture of various aspects of Aural Training was formed. Most authors of Aural Training textbooks and workbooks referred very vaguely to the rationale behind their teaching approaches. Astonishingly enough, most information found on the objectives, teaching ideologies, contents and target group stemmed from sources other than Aural Training text- and workbooks. Two different viewpoints on the significance of Aural Training were found. For one group of authors, the importance of this subject merely lay in the applicability of its skills to other subjects. They mainly emphasised the supportive role that Aural Training plays. The second viewpoint was presented by a minority of authors who tried to see the relevance of Aural Training not simply in its application to other subjects, but mainly in its ability to develop mentally musical thinking abilities. According to them, Aural Training enables the student to perceive and think in the characteristic categories of music. 209 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za A complete hierarchical The long-term structure of objectives primarily designed for Aural Training purposes could not be located. goals found in various publications were therefore organised in such a hierarchy by the researcher. Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives, Prince's paradigm of the listening process, as well as Lehr's derivations of aural objectives hierarchy from the characteristics was constructed. perception of microscopic In the hierarchy, the most basic structural macroscopical listening, structural of the listening process, sensorial listening, the first preeminent everyday memory, inner creation and evaluation, against which this long-term goal of Aural Training and musical hearing, formed the background impulses. practice-based the primary Through skills long-term developing to support is to develop attentiveness, other subjects, goal of Aural Training reached. This process was illustrated by a pyramid diagram in which the potential musician/listener can be is presented at the one end, and the "ideal" listener at the other end. This "ideal" listener with a developed musical consciousness be able to recognise broad overview formal characteristics translate symbol cognitive and details of a work. He will also have the ability to to sound, and sound to symbol as a form of mental imagination. strategies such as problem-solving, will Through and the conscious use of musical concepts, the application of he will be able to act passively and actively on what was heard, being furthermore able to exercise creative and evaluative reasoning. The teaching environment in which these goals are to be achieved is strongly influenced by the teaching philosophy of the teacher. As a result of the influence of the Behaviourist and Cognitive schools of psychological different teaching philosophies Holism. Combinations thinking, four were determined: Isolation vs Integration and Comprehension, and Fragmentation of these philosophies often resulted in isolated fragmented approaches vs integrated, vs com- prehensive holistic approaches. Most of the text- and workbooks examined followed a fragmented approach, parameters outside of a musical context. The holistic approach, on the other hand, concentrates ~on dealing with musical entities within musical contexts. In combination with a comprehensive to other music disciplines Training classes, Instrumental/vocal but dealing mainly with isolated musical approach, cross-references are made in order to understand music. Aspects of other subjects are not only included in Aural Aural performance Training is also integrated into, for example, Music Theory, classes. In the isolated approach, on the contrary, compartmentalised sway. Each subject is treated in isolation, with little or no reference made to its relationships Analysis and thinking holds to other subjects, or to its relations to active involvement in making music. As a result of isolated fragmented approaches, merely pitch-time practices. parameters performed dictation exercises seldom exceed the length of a phrase, on the piano, and are limited The contents of Aural Training from a comprehensive to eighteenth- and nineteenth- point of view include, on the contrary, from the music literature from all style periods, incorporate all the parameters include century examples of music and use a wide variety of methods to develop aural consciousness. Whereas some authors suggested that perfect pitch possessors should be excluded from, or only be partially included in, Aural Training classes, a few authors emphasised the fact that both relative and perfect pitch hearers should receive extensive instruction in all aspects of Aural Training. What is important is not a superficial approach with its sole goal the naming of note names, but a deeper penetration into the creation process of reproduction mere imitation. 210 as opposed to Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za A distinction was made between classroom-based and programmed instruction. These two forms of instruction basically apply the same teaching methods but in different environments. They should therefore not be seen as opposites, but as different manifestations of teaching which are meant to complement each other. Thirteen different methods were distinguished in the classroom-based instruction category, and were discussed from a historical point of view. Research results stemming from investigations other than that of the researcher were also discussed. 1. Gestural (a) (b) (c) tasks Indication of pitch Indication of rhythm and meter/beat Indication of combined music parameters 2. Reproduction tasks (a) Vocal (b) Instrumental 3. Recognition tasks (a) Scales (b) Intervals (c) Chords (d) Cliches (e) 1rimbre 4. Imagination tasks 5. Reading (a) (b) (c) 6. 1rranscription tasks (a) 1rraditional notation (b) Other stave systems (c) Non-traditional notation 7. 1rransposition tasks 8. Completion tasks 9. Discrepancy tasks (a) Aligning notation and sound (b) Error detection (c) Comparisons between score and different recordings 10 Description tasks 11. Aural analysis tasks 12. Creative tasks 13. Evaluation tasks tasks Score reading Rhythm reading Sight singing The field of programmed instruction was furthermore divided into non-computer (NCA1r) and computer-assisted Aural Training (CAT). These two manifestations of programmed instruction can also be seen as developmental stages of self-instruction, with NCAT a forerunner of CAT. The advantages of programmed instruction are that students can 211 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za work at their own pace, timbres other than the piano can be included, constant records of the students' progress are kept, and students are working in an infinitely patient environment. The main purpose of both CAT and NCAT is to provide the student with additional practice possibilities outside the classroom. Programmers argued that valuable classroom instruction time can be saved if students can learn basic skills or do remedial work outside the classroom. NCAT mainly consists of aural exercises on cassette, with or without an accompanying workbook. CAT, however, offers a broader spectrum of advantages over NCAT. Whereas students applying NCAT are responsible for correcting their own answers after having completed a whole series of exercises, immediate feedback on errors is provided by CAT. By means of branching techniques, individualised paths of instruction are presented for each student. 'Research results of investigations by other researchers revealed that: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) most programmed instruction was effective; programmed instruction was found superior to more traditional homework assignments; CAT was proved to be significantly better than NCAT; students' attitudes differed towards programmed instruction. Some students indicated that the presentation of isolated musical elements, poor sound quality, a discouraging grading system, system software bugs and the lack of 'on-line' guidance discouraged them to make use of this instruction form. the integration of the computer into curricula was hindered by the reluctance on the part of many teachers to review their goals, and their hesitancy to relinquish their position of authority. Although forerunners of programs based on the Cognitive school of psychological thinking can be observed in software designed for composition purposes, many aspects of programmed teaching are still dominated by the Behaviourist learning theory. As a result of this theory, drill and repetition until the correct response is given form the core of most of the Aural Training software. This can be clearly seen in the list of more than hundred commercially available software packages presented in Appendix E. The majority of programmed instruction packages is based on passive Aural Training. Newer CAT trends, however, enable Sight singing and keyboard and other instrumental reproduction tasks. Only a few NCAT and CAT programs addressed contextual Aural Training. Commercially available programs in which macroscopical aural analysis methods are included are almost non-existent. The use of ~ompact disc plus Graphics (CD + G) has not been applied to commercially available Aural Training software. In the practical part of the survey, 300 questionnaires were in total sent to Aural Training lectures in the Republic of South Africa (RSA), the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) and the United States of America (USA). The primary goal of this questionnaire-based survey was to describe the general state of Aural Training in the three countries. The secondary goals were (a) to compare aspects of Aural Training as represented in the three countries, and (b) , amongst other things, to examine the validity of the following practical hypotheses: (a) (b) (c) (d) Aural Training is looked upon as a subject that merely supports other subjects. Aural Training is treated as a separate subject in curricula of tertiary institutions. The teaching time available for Aural Training is not sufficient. More emphasis is placed on Sight Singing and Dictation than on other teaching methods. 212 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za (e) Aural Training is taught only in the smaller context of musical phrases and little attention is given to an overall structural approach. Computer-assisted instruction is not included in the majority of Aural Training curricula. In cases where computer-assisted Aural Training has been applied, the achievements of students have improved noticeably. (t) (g) The results indicated that lecturers of Aural Training in the RSA saw Aural Training as a subject that merely supports other subjects. However, only a marginal majority of the lecturers in the other two countries indicated that they looked upon Aural Training as a subject with its oWn goals. These goals were the development of structural hearing, inner hearing, hearing strategies/hearing patterns, musical understanding, musical perception, musical literacy, and practical skills. A possible reason for the lack of conformity training of many Aural Training teachers. on the primary goal of Aural Training was related to the inadequate Because of this, teaching objectives are not clearly defined, further in negative attitudes towards the subject on the part of students, administrators and lecturers. An unfortunate side-effect of this situation is that primary and secondary teachers do not consciously develop children's musicians' aural/mental cognition. Many lecturers and authors pointed out that students enrolling resulting and young at tertiary music institutions were not at all prepared for advanced Aural Training courses. Aural Training was treated as a separate subject in all three countries. Although it was scheduled in separate classes, in grading policies it often formed a subminimum followed at the individual music departments of 10%-50% of another subject. Diverse time schedules in all three countries. the RSA and FRG indicated 60 minutes instruction Only a marginal majority of lecturers from both time. per week per student. USA lecturers indicated minutes per week. The time available was influenced by the seniority of the students, developmental subject of the student, and the availability of extra non-mandatory were 120 to 180 level, major classes such as, for example, Aural Analysis. The duration of Aural Training courses as a rule was 4 to 6 semesters. Although most aural instruction took place as group tuition, lecturers from all three countries preferred a mixture of both individual and group tuition. In both the RSA and FRG very small minorities instruction time. Lecturers of respondents indicated that they were satisfied with the available from the USA, however, related to a growing consciousness clearly indicated their dissatisfaction, a fact which could be of the importance of Aural Training. More emphasis was indeed placed on Sight Singing and Dictation than on other teaching methods. holistic approaches such as conducting developed terminology, Further information imagination using free gestures, graphic representations, tasks, aural analysis, improvisation verbal descriptions and composition Creative and using self- received little attention. gathered on structural hearing indicated that little attention was given to an overall structural approach in all three countries. Music mainly from the Baroque, Classic and Romantic style periods was used as teaching material. The majority of the lecturers from the RSA and FRG indicated that they also used a few self-composed exercises, whereas the majority of the USA lecturers indicated that they mainly used self-composed material with a few examples from the music repertoire. Most of the work-/textbooks indicated concentrated on isolated and fragmented approaches to Aural Training. 213 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Reasons for the overall tendency to concentrate on isolated drill and practice could be that they provide the teacher with means to evaluate the state of the musical mind, that these exercises are readily quantifiable, need less preparation time and fit into a limited time schedule. Programmed itistruction (both CAT and NCAT) served the sale purpose of homework assignments in all three countries. Some music departments furthermore provided students with the opportunity of additional outside practice with a teaching assistant. Regarding NCAT, RSA lecturers used commercially available programs, and FRG and USA lecturers made use of self-developed cassettes. Both NCAT and CAT were used for drill and practice in isolated musical parameters and dictation. Only a few lecturers indicated that they used NCAT for more comprehensive approaches such as completion tasks, aural analysis and comparisons of different interpretations of the same work. The largest differences between the three countries could be seen in the field of CAT. A very large majority of the FRG lecturers did not include CAT in their curriculum, whereas a moderate RSA and fairly large USA majority of lecturers did include this form of programmed instruction. The main reasons for excluding CAT were a lack of knowledge about the available software, uneasiness about the synthesized soupds used, the complex technical environment involved, the limitations of programs, and the financial commitment attached to using CAT. A large majority of lecturers from all three countries, however, revealed an interest in becoming better acquainted with CAT, and wished for programs in which they can include their own examples from the music literature. Other demands were software for sight singing purposes, completion tasks, aural analysis and the possibility of manipulating music on CD for Aural Training purposes. Mainly drill and practice software were indicated by the majority of lecturers in all three countries. Reasons for their choices were that it was available, they were familiar with it, and that it was the best ('least worst'). Although indicated by a small minority, most of the self-developed programs stemmed from the USA. Two German lecturers developed their own software. No RSA developed software was indicated. The main reason for developing software was that the lecturers were not satisfied with the commercially available software. Aural Training lecturers also indicated that they were interested in the application of music psychological aspects to Aural Training, more/other aspects of CAT, more detailed investigations into the objectives and contents of Aural Training, and information on cultural differences between the three countries. In the third part a model for an integrated Aural Training approach was suggested. Because of the often addressed inadequately prepared prospective Aural Training student with an underdeveloped musical consciousness, it was decided to recommend an integrated Aural Training approach for children who start with instrumental/vocal instruction. This model aims to equip young musicians with a developed musical consciousness through the teaching of Aural Training in the form of composition, taking into account music psychological principles of music learning. The two comer stones of this model are (a) that Aural Training should be based on music psychological principles, and (b) the conviction that the most effective learning takes place through active involvement and creation. 214 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za A survey of music psychological Swanwick-Tillman) (a) (b) (c) (d) principles such as Gestalt perception, developmental research (Piaget, Gardner and and musical thinking processes (Prince and Webster) revealed that: Music is perceived as organised patterns. Isolated stimuli have no meaning and depth. Meaningful listening is only possible within a pitch-rhythm context. The ability to organise stimuli improves with learning. The perception of simple melodic structures was already observed in three- to four- year- old children. Teaching approaches should include both perceptual and structural tasks. Sound should precede symbol in music teaching. The use of written symbols to represent music was observed in five- to six- year- old children. Figural graphic representations of rhythm precede metric drawings. Mere imitation tasks are not an indication of musical understanding. Musical development is closely linked to age and music education. More detailed levels of perception are reached by older and musically educated children. The pre-adolescent is optimally equipped to learn. The seven- year- old child already possesses the intuitive creative ability to work with symbol systems on an elementary level. Significant relationships were found between visual-spatial abilities, musicalaptitude and the ability to compose, which declined after puberty. Critical reasoning develops between 12 and 15 years of age and often hampers creativity. It was therefore recommended that critical reasoning should be introduced during pre-adolescence in order to avoid this decline of interest. Musical composition proved to be an indicator of musical development. Learning/thinking does not only depend on musical aptitude, but also on thinking processes such as divergent and convergent reasoning, musical-logical and musical-grammatical thinking processes, as well as developed memory abilities snch as audiation, short-term and long-term memory. The need for the development of creative thinking abilities was also expressed. (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (1) (m) (n) (0) These findings furthermore implied that (a) children aged 7 to 11 are adequately equipped to deal with patterns in a pitch-rhythm context, implying both the incorporation (b) children are increasingly Aural Training development able to present what was heard in figural and metric drawings after 6 years of age; (c) should be approached through of more detailed aural concepts; thinking processes should be developed; and thinking processes, of phrases as well as whole compositions into Aural Training; dealing with wholes, but should at the same time attend to the (d) divergent, convergent, musical-logical and musical-grammatical (e) all students should be exposed to the development of creative abilities and not just the obviously gifted children; (f) auditory critical reasoning should be included from the beginning of instrumental instruction. . Based on these principles, it was argued that composition served as an optimal tool to achieve all the goals of Aural Training. The development of the musical consciousness dents' own creative concepts. Training. Through composition, takes place through exploring, applying and correcting stua holistic comprehensive approach can be applied to Aural The student becomes playfully acquainted with all the parameters of music and their relationships to one another, treated within a musical context. Overall structural and stylistic aspects are addressed while at the same time attending to perceptual details. Through the important phase of notating the composition (translating sounds into symbols), the student also becomes acquainted with written theory skills. During this phase, a variety of other Aural Training methods, e.g. conducting meter, clapping rhythms, identifying and singing intervals, process. The important aspect of critical reasoning (evaluation) is also developed. serve as the basis for developing other exercises such as transposition progressions in other keys, clapping/intoning The final composition (vocal or instrumental), can also playing certain chord rhythmic patterns that appeared in the composition 215 aid the encoding and sight singing Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za typical intervals. Relationships to the same appearances in the tnusic .repertoire and the student's pieces that he performs should always be emphasised. This model can also be applied to tertiary Aural Training. Examples from teaching practice revealed that this integrated theory of Aural Training indeed served the purpose of starting to develop a conscious understanding of the parameters of music and their relationships to each other. 2. CONCLUSIONS Against the background of the above information, it was concluded that: 1. The rational behind Aural Training has not been thoroughly thought through by most authors and Aural Training lecturers. 2. Aural Training lecturers with sound pedagogical credentials are needed. 3. Prospective music students are not prepared for their tertiary Aural Training courses. 4. The Aural Training curricula at most tertiary music institutions do not meet lecturers' expectations. More instruction time is required and both individual and group tuition preferred. 5. The Behaviourist school of psychological thinking still influences Aural Training literature and teaching methods. This can be clearly seen in the supportive role of Aural Training as described in the majority of Aural Training literature, the fragmented drill and practice teaching methods, as well as the isolated treatment of musical parameters outside of a musical context. This influence also filtered through to both forms of programmed instruction. The application of Behaviourist learning theories, however, is a direct contradiction of how music is actually perceived. 6. Aural Training lecturers do not take recent research results into account. Holistic approaches to Aural Training based on music psychological findings have been recommended since the early 1980s. As was seen in the questionnaire-based survey however, fragmented approaches still overshadow more creative teaching methods. 7. Certain Aural Training methods such as Sight Singing and Dictation are often applied because they are readily quantifiable. 8. Most emphasis is placed on tonal music. 9. Commercially available software is chosen because they are available and not because they are based on sound pedagogical principles. 10. Despite the fact that the majority of lecturers do not put into practice the findings of recent research results, there is a growing interest in re-examining Aural Training goals and applying music psychological principles. 216 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 3. RECOMMENDATIONS Several weaknesses could be found in the complete picture of Aural Training. It is therefore recommended that: 1. Aural Training lecturers should constantly re-examine their objectives, contents, teaching philosophies and methods applied to Aural Training. 2. In order to meet the need for adequately trained Aural Training lecturers, advanced courses in Aural Training for students interested in taking Aural Training as a major subject should be offered at all tertiary music institutions. 3. The Aural Training curriculum should be revised at most tertiary music institutions in order to make available more instruction time, and to incorporate both individual and group tuition. A possible time schedule could be: Individual instruction: 30 minutes per week Group tuition: 2 x 45 minutes per week Seminar on e.g. aural analysis, comparisons of different interpretations of the same work: 60 minutes per week Non-mandatory subjects: Themes such as Rhythm in the Twentieth Century, The Development of the Sonata in the Classical and Romantic periods can be treated from an aural point of view. Smallscale investigations in which students experiment with, for example, the streng~s and weaknesses of the ear and different teaching methods can be included. 4. Aural Training should be treated as a subject in its own right in grading policies. 5. Courses in the didactics of Aural Training should be offered at all tertiary music institutions to all music students. The contents of this course should include becoming acquainted with the objectives of Aural Training, different teaching philosophies, the contents of Aural Training, learning theories based on music psychological research results and ways of integrating Aural Training into instrumental lessons of beginner pupils. This knowledge gained should be applied in students' teaching trial lessons to fellow classmates and junior students. 6. Behaviorism in the form of mere drill and practice should be banned from Aural Training, and should be replaced by a comprehensive holistic approach in the form of contextual Aural Training. In all methods attention should be paid to the overall form scheme (structural hearing) as well as details (perceptual hearing) . . Structural hearing (macroscopic hearing) should be included in Aural Training courses right from the beginning. According to music psychological findings, musical contours and overall structural characteristics are perceived first, and not details. 7. Music examples from all style periods as well as music of different ethnic groups should be included in the syllabi of all three countries. Because of the multiracial population in the RSA, it is furthermore recommended that a textbook based on a comprehensive, holistic approach to Aural Training, incorporating indigenous African music, should be published. 8. Other less readily quantifiable and more creative methods such as conducting using free gestures, completion tasks, graphic representations, composition, improvisation, verbal descriptions using self-developed terminology, score reading, imagination tasks and aural analysis should receive more attention in order to balance the wlhealthy emphasis on Sight Singing and Dictation. Evaluation policies should also be reexamined in order to develop assessment techniques for methods other than Sight Singing and Dictation. 217 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 9. The holistic comprehensive teaching philosophy should also be applied to all areas of programmed instruction. Computer software should be revised in order to incorporate methods other than drill and practice. should be designed in order to serve pedagogical goals and not vice versa. The possibilities Software of CD-ROM and MIDI should be fully explored by programmers in order to present improved Aural Training software. 10. Aural Training lecturers should exercise their ability to influence software programming. recommended that workshops on CAT should be presented frequently in order to introduce new software and discuss the advantages and disadvantages software needs, and programmers 11. It is therefore also of different software. Lecturers should be encouraged to voice their should try to meet these. The use of more than one computer program is recommended because the programs often support each other by covering different teaching areas. 12. Lecturers should keep up with the latest research results and find ways of incorporating these into their Aural Training curricula and syllabi. Through this, the application of inefficient methods, or the omission of other valuable newer methods can be avoided. 13. International international 14. contact should be established between different More research should be done in the application objectives of Aural Training, computer-assisted 15. It is finally recommended from their composition. Aural Training departments in the form of conferences held periodically. very first Through of music psychological applying the conscious the Aural Training and cultural differences. that children taking instrumental/vocal lesson, research to Aural Training, the researcher's , development model and application journey of exploring music is started. *** 218 lessons should start with Aural Training of integrated of creative Aural skills, Training through a life-long exciting Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za BIBLIOGRAPHY Adler, Samuel Sight Singing. New York: W.W. Norton, 1979. Adorno, Theodor W. Einleitung in die Musiksoziologie. Frankfurt/Main: Suhrkamp, 1968. Aiello, Rita, J.S. Tanaka and Wayne C. Winborne "Listening to Mozart: Perceptual Differences among Musicians" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 4/2 (Fall 1990) pp. 269-293. Alldahl, Per-Gunnar "Teaching Music Theory: The European Conservatory" in Journal of Music Theory, 18/1 (Spring 1974) pp. 111-123. 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Tomatz, David "Technology in Music: Cultural, Artistic and Ethical Implications" in Proceedings of the National Association of Schools of Music, 77 (1988) pp. 76-69. 235 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Trinity College of Music Sample Ear Tests. London: Trinity College of Music, [n.d.]. Trubitt, Allen R. and Robert S. Hines Ear Training and Sight Singing: An Integrated Approach, Books I and II. New York: Schirmer Books, 1979 (I) and 1980 (II). Trusheim, William H. "Mental Imagery and Musical Perfonnance: An Inquiry into Imagery Use by Eminent Orchestral Brass Players in the United States" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 49/4 (October 1988) p. 655-A. Tutaj, Duane "Software Reviews: The Ear in The Instrumentalist, 43 (March 1989) p. 10. Ulbrich, Markus Freiburger Horprogramme. Staatliche Hochschulefilr Unpublished Aural Instruction Programme (NCAT), Musik Freiburg/Breisgau, Tabellen zur Notenschrlft - Ein Programm Markus Ulbrich, 1978. 1983. fiir angehende Berufsmusiker. Basel: University of Osnabrock KIangArt KonGress. Congress Prospectus, 1991. University of South Africa Practical Musicianship (Aural Tests) Appendix B, Written Examination Syllabuses. Pretoria: UNISA, 1985. Practical Musicianship Grades 1 - Licentiate. Pretoria: UNISA, [n.d.]. Upitis, Rena "Toward a Model for Rhythm Development" in J. Craig Peery, Irene Weiss Peery and Thomas Draper (Eds), Music and Child Development. New York: Springer, 1987. Van Ebbenhorst Tengbergen, M.E. and L.S. Maare Solieges. Amsterdam: Broekmans and Van Poppel, [n.d.]. Van der Horst, F. Maat en Ritme, Parts I and II. Amsterdam: Broekmans and Van Poppel, [n.d.]. Venus, Dankmar Unterweisung im Musikhoren. Wuppertal: A. Hein, 1969. Vetter, Hans-Joachim "Studienvorbereitende Ausbildung an Musikschulen in der Bundesrepublik" in Josef Mayr-Kern, (Ed), Materialien und Ookumente aus der Musikpadagogik, Band 6: Musikalische Grundschulung an Ausbildungsstatten fiir Musikberufe - Dokumentadon iiber die D-A-CH-Tagung 1976. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse 1978. Warburton, Annie o. Graded Aural Tests. London: Longman, 1971. Ward-Steinman, David "Comprehensive Musicianship at San Diego State University" in Journal Theory Pedagogy, 1/2 (Fall 1987) pp. 129-147. Warner, Theodor Das UndurchhOrbare - Beitrage zur Horpsychologie und Didaktik der Moderne. Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer, 1969. Warner New Media Newness, 1/3 (July 1991). of Music Audio Notes - specification sheet on The Orchestra, [n.d.]. Webster, Peter R. "Conceptual Bases for Creative Thinking in Music" in J. Craig Peery, Irene Weiss Peery and Thomas Draper (Eds), Music and Child Development. New York: Springer, 1987. Weisbrod, Fried "Methoden der Horerziehung und der Gehorbildung" in Wolfgang Schmidt-Brunner (Ed.), Methoden des Musikunterrichts. Mainz: Schott, 1982. Weiss, Peter "Computer konnen nun einmal nicht singen - Vortrag bei derD-A-CH - Tagung Ende April in Osterreich - Teil 2" in Neue Musikzeitung, 37/4 (August/September 1988) p. 25. Wennerstrom, Mary H. "The Undergraduate Core Music Curriculum at Indiana University" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 3/2 (Fall 1989) pp. 153-176. Wettstein, Peter "GehOrbildung an der Musikhochschule Ziirich" in Josef Mayr-Kern, (Ed), Materialien und Dokumente aus der Musikpadagogik, Band 6: Musikalische Grundschulung an Ausbildungsstatten fUr Musikberufe Dokumentation tiber die D-A-CH-Tagung 1976. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse 1978. 236 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Wilder, Michael David An Investigation of the Relationship between Melodic Ear-to-Hand Coordination and Written and Aural Theory Skills within an Undergraduate Music Theory Context. Doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan 1988. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1988. Willernze, Theo Het muzikaal gehoor - vorming en ontwikkeling. Utrecht: Aura, 1969. Wittlich, Gary E. and Lee Humphries Ear Training - An Approach through Music Literature. Yovanovich, 1974. Wittlich, Gary E., John Schaffer and Larry R. Babb Microcomputers and Music. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1986. Woll, Erna Buchprogrammiertes Wolters, Klaus "GehOrschulung im Klavierunterricht" in Josef Mayr-Kern, (Ed), Materialien und Dokumente aus der Musikpadagogik, Band 6: Musikalische Grundschulung an Ausbildungssmtten fUr Musikberufe - Dokumentation tiber die D-A-CH-Tagung 1976. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse 1978. Yao, Shey-Tzer The Aural Skills Development Program in Music Departments of Two PostSecondary Institutions in Taiwan: Status and Recommendations. Doctoral dissertation, Ball State University 1990. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1990. . Yeager, Marian Ruth A Survey of the Corrective Listening Ability of a Group of College Music Students. Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Texas, 1952. Zehetmair, Helmut "Spezielle Aufgaben einer Gehorbildung im Violinunterricht" in Josef Mayr-Kern, (Ed), Materialien und Dokumente aus der Musikpadagogik, Band 6: Musikalische Grundschulung an Ausbildungsstatten ftir Musikberufe - Dokumentation tiber die D-A-CH-Tagung 1976. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse 1978. .. New York: Harcourt Brace Musiklernen. WolfenbUttel: Moseler, 1970. 237 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za APPENDIX A Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za INVESTIGATIONS INTO AURAL TRAINING AND RELATED RESEARCH A. OUTLINE 1. DIDACTICAL 1.1 ASPECTS Combined Traditional 1.1.1 1.1.2 1.1.3 1.2 Comprehensive theories Integration into other music disciplines Curriculum planning Traditional perspectives 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.3 Programmed Aural Training (not CAT) Selected teaching strategies Comparisons between selected strategies Recent perspectives 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3 1.4 Computer-assisted Aural Training (CAT) Twentieth-century music Aural Analysis Traditional and "recent perspectives 1.4.1 1.4.2 2. RELATED and recent perspectives combined Comparisons between CAT and traditional approaches Effects and efficiency MUSIC PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS 2.1 Aspects applied to Aural Training 2.2 Unexplored 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.2.5 aspects Aural perception Developmental research Learning processes Phenomena such as perfect pitch, tone deafness and chromesthesia Miscellaneous B. TITLES AND DETAILS 1. DIDACTICAL ASPECTS 1.1 Combined Traditional 1.1.1 and recent perspectives Comprehensive theories Ashley, Richard Douglas: Toward a Theory of Instruction in Aural Skills. Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 1982. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1982. Brink, Emily Ruth: A Cognitive Approach to the Teaching of Aural Skills viewed as Applied Music Theory. Doctoral dissertation, Northwestern University Evanston, Illinois 1980. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1980. Davidson, Jerry Frank: An Investigation into the Systematic Application of Performance Objectives to Ear Training. Doctoral dissertation, Northwestern University Illinois 1982. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1982. 240 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Houlahan, MicheaI Brendan: "A Methodology for Teaching Ear Training, Sight Singing, and Harmony at the College Level based on the Concept of Zoltan KodaIy" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 50/4 (October 1989) p. 825-A. Houlahan, MicheaI and Philip Tacka: "Sound Thinking: A Suggested Sequence for Teaching Musical Elements based on the Philosophy of Zoltan KodaIy for a College Music Theory Course" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 4/1 (Spring 1990) pp. 85-109. Houlahan, MicheaI and Philip Tacka: "Sequential Order for the Preparation, Presentation, Practice and Evaluation of Rhythmic and Melodic Concepts" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 4/2 (Fall 1990) pp. 243-267. Joseph, Annabelle Sachs: "A Dalcroze Eurhythmics Approach to Music Learning in Kindergarten through Rhythmic Movement, Ear-Training and Improvisation" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 44/2 (August 1983) p. 420-A. 1.1.2 Integration into other music disciplines Bruhn, Herbert: "Wahrnehmung von dur-moll-tonalen Beziehungen zwischen Akkorden: Zur Relevanz einer Harmonielehre-Didaktik" in Christa Nauck-Bomer, (Ed.) Musikpadagogische Forschung Band 9: Musikpadagogik zwischen Traditionen und Medienzukunft. Laaber: Laaber, 1988, pp. 229-242. Douglas, Bernita: Riglyne vir geintegreerde gehooropleiding by klavieronderrig. Master's thesis, University of Stellenbosch 1990. Unpublished Holmes, Ramona AdelIa: "A Model of Aural Instruction examined in the Case of Fiddle Teaching" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 51/4 (October 1990) pp. 1151-A - 1152-A. La Reau, Marcia Ann: "An Auralization-Based Curriculum as a Methodology for Advanced Aural Skills Training for Wind Band Conductors" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 50/12 (June 1990) p. 3882-A. Micheel, Wilhelm: Beitrage zur Schulmusik, Sechtes Heft: Musikunterricht in einfachen Stadtund Landschulen - Gehorbildung und rhytbmische Erziehung mit Stufen- und Rbytbmussilben. Lahr: Morill Schauenburg, 1932. Morawski-Bungeler, Marietta: "GehOrbildung als integriertes Fach. Neue Wege in der polnischen Musikausbildung" in Musica, 37/6 (1983) pp. 516-521. Schleuter, Stanley L.: A Sound Approach to Teaching Instrumentalists - An Application of Content and Learning Sequence. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University :press, 1984. Strange, Cheryl May: "The Development of a Beginning Violin Curriculum Integrating a Computer Music Station with the Principles of Comprehensive Musicianship" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 51/7 (January 1991) p. 2309-A. 1.1.3 Curriculum planning Alldahl, Per-Gunnar: "Teaching Music Theory: The European Conservatory" as translated by Bo Alphonce in Journal of Music Theory, 18/1 (Spring 1974) pp. 111-123. Bohm, Kurt: "Das Konzept der GehOrbildung an der Musikakademie und am Konservatorium Zurich" in Schweizerische Musikzeitung. 122/6 (NovemberlDecember 1982) pp. 373374. Damschroder, David A.: "Flexibility in the Theory Classroom: Strategies for the Management of Diversity" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 3/2 (Fall 1989) pp. 177-187. Davidson, Lyle, Larry Scripp and Joan Meyaard: "Sightsinging at New England Conservatory of Music" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 2/1 (Spring 1988) pp. 3-68. Foltz, Roger E. and Alice M. Lanning: "Report on the Institute for Music Theory Pedagogy Studies II" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 3/2 (Fall 1989) pp. 243-253. Gauldin, Robert: "Teaching Music Theory: The Conservatory" in Journal of Music Theory, 18/1 (Spring 1974) pp. 75-90. 241 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Lonnendonker, Hans: "Musiktheoretisches Grundstudium an der Musikhochschule des Saarlandes in Saarbriicken" in Josef Mayr-Kern (Ed.), Materialien und Dokumente aus der Musikpadagogik, Band 6: Musikalische Grundschulung an Ausbildungsstatten fiir Musikberufe - Dokumentation fiber die D-A-CH-Tagung 1976. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1978. Mackamul, Roland: "Effektivitatsmindernde Faktoren im Bereich der GehOrbildung" in Josef MayrKern (Ed.), Materialien und Dokumente aus der Musikpadagogik, Band 6: Musikalische Grundschulung an Ausbildungsstatten fiir Musikberufe - Dokumentation fiber die D-A-CH-Tagung 1976. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1978. Messer, Wolfgang: "Musikalische Grundschulung an der Hochschule Graz" in Josef Mayr-Kern (Ed.), Materialien und Dokumente aus der Musikpadagogik, Band 6: Musikalische Grundschulung an Ausbildungsstatten fUr Musikberufe - Dokumentation fiber die D-A-CH-Tagung 1976. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1978. Miiller-Bech Werner: "Anforderungen bei den Aufnahmepriifungen der Musikhochschulen in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland bezogen auf die Musiktheorie und GehOrbildung" in Josef Mayr-Kern (Ed.), Materialien und Dokumente aus der Musikpadagogik, Band 6: Musikalische Grundschulung an Ausbildungsstatten ffir Musikberufe - Dokumentation fiber die D-A-CH-Tagung 1976. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1978. Naude, Anna C.: In Ondersoek na die geskiktheid van sillabi vir gehoortoetse in gegradeerde musiekeksamens. Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Stellenbosch 1987. Paxinos, S.: "Examination Ear Tests" in Musicus, 15/1 (1987) pp. 14-21. Pembrook, Randall G. and H. Lee Riggins: "'Send help!': Aural skills Instruction in U.S. Colleges and Universities" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 4/2 (Fall 1990) pp. 231-241. Pratt, George and Michael Henson: "Aural Teaching in the First Year of Tertiary Education: An Outline for a Course" in British Journal of Music Education, 4/2 (1987) pp. 115-137. Pratt, George, Michael Henson and Simon Cargill: Aural Awareness: Principles and Practice. Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1990. Rogers, Michael R.: "A Report on the 1992 CMS Theory Pedagogy Institute" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 6/2 (1992) pp. 35-41. "Editorial: Trends and Issues in Music Theory Teaching" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 1/1 (Spring 1987) pp. 1-5. Ward-Steinman, David: "Comprehensive Musicianship at San Diego State University" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 1/2 (Fall 1987) pp. 127-147. Wennerstrom, Mary H.: "The Undergraduate Core Music Curriculum at Indiana University" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 3/2 (Fall 1989) pp. 153-176. Wettstein, Peter: "GehOrbildungsunterricht an der Musikhochschule Ziirich" in Josef Mayr-Kern (Ed.), Materialien und Dokumente aus der Musikpadagogik, .Band 6: Musikalische Grundschulung an Ausbildungsstatten fUr Musikberufe - Dokumentation fiber die D-A-CH-Tagung 1976. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1978. Yao, Sher-Tzer: The Aural Skills Development Program in Music Departments of Two PostSecondary Institutions in Taiwan: Status and Recommendations. Doctoral dissertation, Ball State University 1990. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1990. 1.2 Traditional perspectives 1.2.1 ProgrammedAural Training(not CAn Bodenstein, Nancy Marie: "The Teaching of Selected Musical Concepts in the College Music Survey Course utilizing the Taped Guided Listening Technique" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 36/3 (September 1975) p. 1362-A. 242 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Bridges, Nicolas: "The Development of Aural Perception of Selected Percepts of Musical Form utilizing Programmed Instruction" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 43/4 (October 1982) pp. 1073-A - 1074 -A. Carlsen, James C.: "Implications of Recent Research Problems in Programed Music Instruction" in Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 4 (Winter 1965) pp. 30-35. "Programmed Learning in Melodic Dictation" in Journal of Research in Music Education, 12/2 (1964) pp. 139-148. Daniels, Melvin Lucas: "An Investigation of the Effectiveness of Programed Learning in the Teaching of Harmonic Dictation at a Beginning College Music Theory Course" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 26/11 (May 1966) pp. 6544-A - 6545-A. Graves, David Lee: "The Development of an Objective Sight Singing Achievement Test Employing Electronic Measurement Apparatus" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 41/10 (April 1981) p. 4322-A. Greenberg, Marvin and Don R. Huddleston: "A Program for Developing Aural Discrimination of Instrumental Tone Colors Using a Videosonic Teaching Machine" in Journal of Research in Music Education, 19/1 (1971) pp. 51-61. Hammer, Harry: "An Experimental Study of the Use of the Tachistoscope in the Teaching of Sight Singing" in Journal of Research in Music Education, 11 (1963) pp. 44-54. O'Connor, Sister Margaret Grace: "Development of Discriminatory Music Listening Skills in the Junior High School utilizing Programmed Instruction" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 37/3 (September 1976) p. 1446-A. Sangster, P.A.: Audio Psycho Phonology as Ear Training for Musicians to Improve their Aural Perception. Unpublished essay presented for the degree of Bachelor of Music, University of Natal-Durban 1978. Simpson, Edwin: "Investigating the Effectiveness of Programed Listening in Secondary Instrumental Music Instruction" in Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 19/4 (1970) pp. 17-19. Tarratus, Edward A. (Jr.) and Charles L. Spohn: "Cooperative Research in Programed Learning: Taped Interval Discrimination Drills" in Journal of Research in Music Education, 15/3 (1967) pp. 210-214. 1.2.2 Selected teaching strategies Davidson, Lyle, Larry Scripp and Joan Meyaard: "Sightsinging at New England Conservatory of Music" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 2/1 (Spring 1988) pp. 3-68. Froseth, James 0.: A Longitudinal Study of the Relationship between Melodic Ear-to-Hand Coordination and Selected Indices of Music Achievement at The University of Michigan School of Music. Research Report to the Dean and Executive Committee of the School of Music, The University of Michigan, Spring 1985. (As quoted by Michael David Wilder. The researcher received only excerpts from this report from James Froseth) Haendschke, Theodore Alexander: The Aural Recognition of Sonorities. Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Texas, 1955. Humphreys, Jere Thomas: "An Investigation of an Experimental Harmonic Audiation Skills Testing and Training Program for Instrumental Music Education Majors" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 45/2 (August 1984) pp. 446-A - 447-A. Johnson, Greta J. Bredemeier: A Descriptive Study of the Pitch-Reading Methods and the Amount of Time utilized to Teach Sight Singing by High School Choral Teachers in the North Central Region of the American Choral Directors Association. Master's thesis, University of Nebraska 1987. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1987. Karpinsky, Gary S.: "A Model for Music Perception and its Implications in Melodic Dictation" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 4/2 (Fall 1990) pp. 191-229.. 243 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Lochstampfor, Mark Lewis: "The effects of timbre on aural skills: An exploration of the attributes of timbre and spectral parsing for sounds used in aural training" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 51/12 (June 1991) p. 4054-A. Luce, John R.: "Sight-Reading and Ear-Playing Abilities as Related to Instrumental Music Students" in Journal of Research in Music Education, 13/2 (Summer 1965) pp. 101109. Mason, Thorn David: "The Case of Moveable Do. Solrege as a Practical Tool for Improvisors" in Proceedings of NAJE Research, (Since 1983 Jazz Research Papers) 7 (1987) pp. 95107. Murphy, Barbara Ann: "The Effect of Task Order and Function Pattern on Learning of Harmonic Dictation" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 50/12 (June 1990) p. 3882-A. Osborne, Anne Marion: "The Interaction of Field Dependence/Independence, Instructional Methodology, and Achievement in Harmonic Dictation Skills" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 49/10 (April 1989) p. 2959-A. Pepper, Pearl Jenchol: Individualized Materials for Teaching Selected Components of Melody in the Primary School. Doctoral dissertation, Columbia University Teachers College, 1980. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1984. Pottenger, Harold Paul: An Analysis of Rhythm Reading Skill. Doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, 1969. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1984. Potter, Gary: "Identifying Successful Dictation Strategies" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 4/1 (Spring 1990) pp. 63-71. Roye, Nedra Koen: "Memory - A Comparison of Rote Rehearsal versus the Story Mnemonic for the Recognition, Identification, and Recall of Musical Intervals" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 48/1 (July 1987) p. 39-A. Rush, Mark Alan: "An Experimental Investigation of the Effectiveness of Training on Absolute Pitch in Adult Musicians" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 50/4 (October 1989) p.826-A. Trusheim, William H.: "Mental Imagery and Musical Performance: An Inquiry into Imagery Use by Eminent Orchestral Brass Players in the United States" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 49/4 (October 1988) p. 655-A. Wilder, Michael David: An Investigation of the Relationship between Melodic Ear-to-Hand Coordination and Written and Aural Theory Skills within an Undergraduate Music Theory Context. Doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, 1988. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1988. Yeager, Marian Ruth: A Survey of the CorrectiV'e Listening Ability of a Group of College Music Students. Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Texas, 1952. 1.2.3 Comparisons between selected methods Bales, W. Kenton and Roger E. Foltz: "A Comparison of Synthesized and Acoustic Sound Resources in Lower-Division Theory Courses" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 1/1 (Spring 1987) pp. 91-103. Blombach, Ann K. and Regena T. Parrish: "Acquiring Aural Interval Identification Skills: Random vs Ordered Grouping" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 2/1 (Spring 1988) pp. 113-131. Bridges, Nicolas: "The Development of Aural Perception of Selected Percepts of Musical Form utilizing Programmed Instruction" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 43/4 (October 1982) pp. 1073-A - 1074 -A. • Caneios, James J., Barbara A. Murphy, Ann K. Blombach, and William C. Heck: "Evaluation of Three Types of Instructional Strategy for Learner Acquisition of Intervals" in Journal of Research in Music Education, 28/4 (1980) pp. 243-249. 244 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Crumpler, Sue E.: "The Effect of Dalcroze Eurhythmics on the Melodic Musical Growth of First Grade Students" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 43/8 (February 1983) p. 2587- A. Gamble, Denise Kath: "A Study of the Effects of Two Types of Tonal Pattern Instruction on the Audiational and Performance Skills of First-Year Clarinet Students" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 50/4 (October 1989) pp. 893-A - 894-A. Goodwin, Mark Allen: "The Effectiveness of 'Pitch Master' Compared to Traditional Classroom Methods in Teaching Sightsinging to College Music Students" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 52/1 (July 1991) p. 106-A. Hewlett, Rex J.: An Investigation of the Effectiveness of Two Methods of Student Response using Taped Program of Practice Materials for Improving Aural Discrimination. Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State Univ~rsity 1966, as quoted by Michael David Wilder. Hutton, Doris: "A Comparative Study of Two Methods of Teaching Sight Singing in the Fourth Grade" in Journal of Research in Music Education, I (Fall 1953) pp. 119-126. Joseph, Annabelle Sachs: "A Dalcroze Eurhythmics Approach to Music Learning in Kindergarten through Rhythmic Movement, Ear-Training and Improvisation" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 44/2 (August 1983) p. 420-A. Kadyk, Folkert Herpel: "A Comparison of Teaching Paired Beat Patterns in a Rhythm Content Learning Sequence with a Traditional Approach in Beginning Instrumental Music Classes" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 48/4 (October 1987) pp. 862-A - 863- A. Kendall, Michael Jay: it The Effects of Visual Interventions on the Development of Aural and Instrumental Performance Skills in Beginning Fifth-Grade Instrumental Students: A Comparison of Two Instructional approaches" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 47/6 (December 1986) pp. 2070-A - 2071-A. Levinowitz, Lili Muhler: "An Experimental Study of the Comparative Effects of Singing Songs with Words and without Words on Children in Kindergarten and in First Grade" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 48/4 (October 1987) p. 863-A. Martin, Beverly Ann: The Effect of Hand Signs, Verbal Tonal Syllables, and Letter Representations of Tonal Syllables on the Verbal and Symbolic Acquisition of Tonal Skills by First Grade Students. Doctoral dissertation, University of Oklahoma 1987. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1987. .O'Brien, Wanda Teresa: "A Comparison of the use of Analytical Language with the use of a Combination of Figurative and Analytical Language and their Effects on Attitude and Conceptual Understanding of Music among Seventh-Grade Students" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 50/7 (January 1990) p. 1975-A. Palmer, Mary H.: "Relative Effectiveness of Two Approaches to Rhythm Reading for Fourth-Grade Students" in Journal of Research in Music Education, 24/3 (1976) pp. 110-118. Parker, Robert Clinton: "The Relative Effectiveness of the TAP system in Instruction in Sight Singing: An ~xperimental Study" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 41/1 (July 1980) p. 151-A. Sears, Margaret Frances C.D.P.: "Musical Listening Skills, Insight and Visual-Auditory Perception: A Statistical Investigation of their Relationships" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 37/9 (March 1977) pp. 5673-A -5673-A. Smithee, Larry Gene: "The Effects of Two Methods of Teaching Basic Music Concepts utilizing Twentieth-Century Music" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 50/7 (January 1990) pp. 1975-A - 1976-A. Stockton, James Larry: "An Experimental Study of Two Approaches to the Development of Aural Meter Discrimination among Students in a College Introductory Class" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 43/3 (September 1982) p. 718-A. 245 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 1.3 Recent perspectives 1.3.1 Computer-assisted Aural Training (CAT) Arenson, Michael: "An Examination of Computer-Based Educational Hardware at Twenty-Eight NCCBMI Member Schools" in Journal of Computer-based Instruction, 5/3 (1978) pp. 38-40. "The Effect of a Competency-Based Computer Program on the Learning of Fundamental Skills in a Theory Course for Non-Majors" in Journal of Computer-based Instruction, 9/3 (1982) pp. 55-58. Ashley, Richard Douglas: Toward a Theory of Instruction in Aural Skills. Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 1982. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1982. Blais, F. and M. Prevel: "The Melocapteur: A Pitch Extractor Peripheral Design for Ear Training", lecture read at the Fourth Canadian Symposium on Instructional Technology: Computer Technologies for Productive Learning. Winnipeg, Manhattan: National Research Council of Canada, 1983 pp. 515-518. Blombach, Ann K. "OSU's GAMUT: Semi-Intelligent Computer-Assisted Music Ear Training", lecture read at the Sixth International Conference on Computers and the Humanities. Rockville, MD: Computer Science Press, 1983 pp. 14-15. Bresler, Liora: "The Role of the Computer in a Music Theory Classroom: Integration, Barriers, and Learning" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 48/7 (January 1988) p. 1689-A. Bukspan, Y., L.F. Lewis and B. Feinstein: "CAML - A Computer-Aided Music Learning Program" The International.Conference on Courseware Design. Ramat, Gan, Israel: Processing Association Israel, 1988 pp. 304-308. Conant, Barbara H.: A study of Cognitive Processes of Children Creating Music in a Computer Learning Environment. Doctoral dissertation, University of Massachusetts 1988. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1988. Dalby, Bruce Foreman: "A Computer-Based Training Program for the Development of Harmonic Intonation Discrimination Skill" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 50/7 (January 1990) pp. 1974-A - 1975-A. Daniel, Shirelle Desiree: Computer-Assisted Instruction in Music Education. Unpublished Honours Degree paper in Music Education, University of Natal-Durban 1989. Deal, John Jeffrey: "Computer-Assisted Programed Instruction to Teach Pitch and Rhythm ErrorDetection Skill to College Music Education Students" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 44/12 (June 1983) pp. 3622-A - 3623-A. Eisele, Mark Joseph: "Development and Validation ofa Computer-Assisted Instructional Lesson for Teaching Intonation Discrimination Skills to Violin and Viola students" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 46/12 (June 1986) p. 3642-A. Gill, Michael James: Zyklus: A Performer's Analysis; A Video Taped Timpani Method utilizing Computer Assisted Instruction for Ear Training. Doctoral dissertation, University of Southern Mississippi 1988. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1988. Hofstetter, Fred T.: "Computer-Based Aural Training: The Guido system" in Journal Computer-based Instruction, 7/3 (February 1981) pp. 84-92. Computer Literacy for Musicians. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1988. of Humphries, James Avery: "The Effects of Computer-Assisted Aural Drill Time on Achievement in Musical Interval Identification" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 39/3 (1978) p. 1403-A, as well as in Journal of Computer-based Instruction, 6/3 (1980) pp. 91-98. Hunter, Leslie L.: "Computer-Assisted Assessment of Melodic and Rhythmic Discrimination Skills" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 26/2 (1989) pp. 79-87. 246 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Kolb, Randall Martin (reviewed by William R. Higgins): "Critiques: A Real-Time MicrocomputerAssisted System for Translating Aural, Monophonic Tones into Music Notation as an Aid in Sight-Singing" (Doctoral dissertation Louisiana State University 1984) in Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education 93 (Late summer 1987) pp. 49-52. Konecky, Lawrence Wayne: "A Comparison of Two Sequences of Aural Interval Identification Drill Administered to College Students through Computer-Assisted Instruction" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 47/11 (May 1987) p. 4013-A. Kozerski, Russell, A.: Personal Computer Microworlds for Music Composition and Education. University of California, San Diego 1988. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1988. Kuhn, Wolfgang E. and Raynold E. Allvin: "Computer-Assisted Teaching: A New Approach to Research in Music" in Journal of Research in Music Education, 15/4 (1967) pp. 305315. Lamb, M.R. and R.H.T. Bates: "Computerized Aural Training: An Interactive System Designed to Help both Teachers and Students" in Journal of Computer-based Instruction, 5/1 +2 (1978) pp. 30-37. Lorek Mary Jo: "Computer Analysis of Vocal Input: A Program that Simulates College Faculty Sight Singing Evaluation" in Computer in Music Research, 3 (Fall 1990) pp. 121-138. Lorek, Mary Jo and Randall G. Pembrook: "Present and Future Applications of a MicrocomputerBased Frequency Analysis System" in Psychomusicology, 8/2 (1989) pp. 97-109. Mee, Robert Arthur: "The Integration and Evaluation of 'Musicland' in a Music Listening Course and Acoustics Course for Tenth Grade Students" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 49/7 (January 1990) p. 1727-A. Ottman, Robert W., Rosemary N. Killam, Robert M. Adams, W. Kenton Bales, Steven V. Bertsche, Leslie C. Gay, Donald B. Marshall, Daniel A. Peak, and Douglas Ray: "Development of a Concept-Centered Ear-Training CAl System" in Journal of Computer-Based Instruction, 6/3 (1980) pp. 79-86. Pembrook, Randall G.: "Some Implications of Students' Attitudes Toward a Computer-Based Melodic Dictation Program" in Journal of Research in Music Education, 34/2 (1986) pp. 121-133. Prevel, Martin: "Low-Cost, Computer-Assisted Ear-Training" in Journal of Computer-based Instruction, 6/3 (1980) pp. 77-78. Robinson, Russell Lowell: "The Development and Evaluation of Microcomputer-Assisted Music Instruction Program for the Improvement of Tonal Memory" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 45/4 (October 1984) pp. 1065-A - 1066-A. Schaffer, John William: "Developing an Intelligent Music Tutorial: An Investigation of Expert Systems and their Potential for a Microcomputer-Based Instruction in Music Theory" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 49/10 (ApriI1989) p. 2959-A. Thompson, Joseph Edgar: "Sightsinging Constant Rhythm Pitch Phrases: A Computer Assisted Instructional System" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 34/7 (January 1974) p. 4319-A. Willett, Barbara E. and Anton J. Netusil: "Music Computer Drill and Learning Styles at the FourthGrade Level" in Journal of Research in Music Education, 37/3 (1989) pp. 219-229. 1.3.2 Twentieth-centurymusic Bester, Hilda: Gehooropleiding in die Twintigste eeu met spesiale verwysing na Nuwe Musiek. Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Stellenbosch 1983. Marvin, Elizabeth West: A Generalized Theory of Musical Contour: Its Application to melodic and Rhythmic Analysis of Non-Tonal Music and its Perceptual and Pedagogical Implications. Doctoral dissertation, University of Rochester 1988. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1988. 247 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Rubinstein, Bat-sheva: "A Model for Developing Advanced Level Aural Cognition focussed on the Melodic Elements in Selected Twentieth Century Music" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 50/7 (January 1990) p. 1844-A. Sears, Margaret Frances C.D.P.: "Musical .Listening Skills, Insight and Visual-Auditory Perception: A Statistical Investigation of their Relationships" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 37/9 (March 1977) pp. 5673-A - 5673-A. Smithee, Larry Gene: "The Effects of Two Methods of Teaching Basic Music Concepts utilizing Twentieth-Century Music" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 50/7 (January 1990) pp. 1975-A - 1976-A. 1.3.3 Aural Analysis Brink, Emily Ruth: A Cognitive Approach to the Teaching of Aural Skills viewed as Applied Music Theory. Doctoral dissertation, Northwestern University Evanston, Illinois 1980. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1980. Kaden, Christian: "Auditive Analyse: Kritik des Selbstverstandlichen" Musikwissenschaft, 32/2 (1990) pp. 81-87. in Beitrage zur Potter, Gary: "Putting Skills to Work: An Aural Analysis Project" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 2/1 (Spring 1988) pp. 69-84. Thiele, Kerstin: "M6gIichkeiten auditiver Analyse in der Arbeit mit Kindem. Eine Erkundigungsuntersuchung" in Beitriige zur Musikwissenschaft, 32/2 (1990) pp. 107-119. 1.4 Traditional and recent perspectives combined 1.4.1 Comparisons between CAT and traditional approaches Garton, Janet Claire: "The Efficacy of Computer-Based and Tape-Recorded Assistance in SecondSemester Freshman Ear Training Instruction" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 42/11 (May 1982) pp. 4756-A - 4757-A. Glass, Jacqualine Sherrie: "The Effects of a Microcomputer-Assisted Tuning Program on Junior High School Students' Pitch Discrimination and Pitch-Matching Abilities" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 47/6 (December 1986) p. 2070-A. Lee, James Lawrence: "The Effectiveness of a Computer-Assisted Program designed to Teach Verbal-Descriptive Skills upon an Aural Sensation of Music" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 36/3 (September 1975) pp. 1363-A - 1364-A. Shannon, Don Wayne: "Aural-Visual Interval Recognition in Music Instruction: A Comparison of a Computer-Assisted Approach and a Traditional In-Class Approach" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 43/3 (September 1982) p. 718-A. 1.4.2 Effects and efficiency Bailey, Darrell Lee: "The Effects of Computer-Based Instruction on Achievement of Four, Five and Six-Year-Old Children in the Yamaha Music Education System Primary One Course" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 51/3 (September 1990) p. 777-A. Bozone, John Michael: "The Use of Sight Singing as a Prestudy Aid for the Improvement of the Sight-Reading Skill of Second-Semester Class Piano Students" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 47/7 (January 1987) p. 2358-A. Brown, Thomas Walker: "An Investigation of the Effectiveness of a Piano Course in Playing by Ear and Aural Skills Development for College Students" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 51/1 (June 1991) pp. 4052-A - 4053-A. Dunlap, Michael Paul: "The Effects of Singing and Solmization Training on the Musical Achievement of Beginning Fifth-Grade Instrumental Students" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 51/2 (August 1990) pp. 444-A - 445-A. 248 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Gamble, Denise Kath: "A Study of the Effects of Two Types of Tonal Pattern Instruction on the Audiational and Performance Skills of First-Year Clarinet Students" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 50/4 (October 1989) pp. 893-A - 894-A. Grutzmacher, P.A.: "The Effect of Tonal Pattern Training on Aural Perception, Reading Recognition, and Melodic Sight Singing Achievement of First-Year Instrumental Music Students" in Journal of Research in Music Education, 35/3 (1987) pp. 171-181. Hempel, Christoph and Andreas Lehmann: TELG - Testreihe zur Ennittlung von Lernfortschritten in der GehOrbiidung. Pre-publication copy the authors' contribution to a panel discussion during the KlangArt-Kongrej3 held at the University of Osnabrock in 1991. Hesser, Lois Annette: Effectiveness of Computer Assisted Instruction in Developing Music Reading Skills at the Elementary Level. Doctoral dissertation, State University of New York at Albany 1988. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1988. Karl, Harold Thomas: The Effects of Melodic Dictation and Sight Singing on Music Reading Achievement. Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University 1971. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1984. King, Richard Vern: "The Effects of Computer-Assisted Music Instruction on Achievement of Seventh-Grade Students" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 49/9 (March 1989) pp. 2574-A - 2572-A. Lewis, Barbara Emma: The Effect of Movement-Based Instruction on the Aural Perception Skills of First- and Third-Graders. Doctoral dissertation, Indiana University 1986. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1986. Rogers, Michael W.: "The Effects of Aural and Tactual Feedback on Sightreading Music at an Electronic Piano" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 51/2 (August 1990) p. 445- A. Sanders, William Huston: The Effect of Computer-Based Instructional Materials in a Program for Visual Diagnostic Skills Training of Instrumental Music Education Students. Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 1980. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1980. 2. RELATED MUSIC PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS 2.1 Aspects applied in Aural Training Ashley, Richard Douglas: Toward a Theory of Instruction in Aural Skills. Doctoral dissertation, University of Illmois at Urbana-Champaign 1982. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1982. Bester, Hilda: Gehooropleiding in die Twintigste Eeu met spesiale verwysing na Nuwe Musiek. Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Stellenbosch 1983. Brink, Emily Ruth: A Cognitive Approach to the Teaching of Aural Skills viewed as Applied Music Theory. Doctoral dissertation, Northwestern University Evanston, Illinois 1980. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1980. Conant, Barbara H.: A study of Cognitive Processes of Children Creating Music in a Computer Learning Environment. Doctoral dissertation, University of Massachusetts 1988. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1988. Davidson, Lyle, Larry Scripp and Joan Meyaard: "Sightsinging at New England Conservatory of Music" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 2/1 (Spring 1988) pp. 3-68. Karpinsky, Gary S.: "A Model for Music Perception and its Implications in Melodic Dictation" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 4/2 (FalI1990) pp. 191-229. Lochstampfor, Mark Lewis: "The Effects of Timbre on Aural Skills: An Exploration of the Attributes of Timbre and Spectral Parsing for Sounds used in Aural Training" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 51/12 (June 1991) p. 4054-A. 249 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Marvin, Elizabeth West: A Generalized Theory of Musical Contour: Its Application to melodic and Rhythmic Analysis of Non-Tonal Music and its Perceptual and Pedagogical Implications. Doctoral dissertation, University of Rochester 1988. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1988. Mason, Thorn David: "The Case of Moveable Do. Solfege as a Practical Tool for Improvisors" in Proceedings of NAJE Research, (Since 1983 Jazz Research Papers) 7 (1987) pp. 95107. Naude, Anna C.: 'n Ondersoek na die geskiktheid van sillabi vir gehoortoetse in gegradeerde musiekeksamens. Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Stellenbosch 1987. Rubinstein, Bat-sheva: "A Model for Developing Advanced Level Aural Cognition focussed on the Melodic Elements in Selected Twentieth Century Music" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 50/7 (January 1990) p. 1844-A. Sangster, P.A.: Audio Psycho Phonology as Ear Training for Musicians to Improve their Aural Perception. Unpublished essay presented for the degree of Bachelor of Music, University of Natal-Durban 1978. Schleuter, Stanley L.: A Sound Approach to Teaching Instrumentalists - An Application Content and Learning Sequence. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1984. 2.2 Unexplored 2.2.1 of aspects Aural perception Aiello, Rita, J.S. Tanaka and Wayne C. Winborne: "Listening to Mozart: Perceptual differences among musicians" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 4/2 (Fall 1990) pp. 269-293. Burns, Mary Marguerite: Aural Perception of Tonality in Avant Garde Music and its Relation-. ship to Preference. Doctoral dissertation, Florida State University, 1980. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1984. Campenni, Catherine Estelle: Contour and Rhythm as Determinants of the Perceptual Organization of Complex Auditory Stimuli. Doctoral dissertation, Adelphi University 1987. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1987. Christopherson, Frank Dean: "The Integration of Pitch and Interval Perception in Tonal Melody" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 50/12 p. 3785-A. Dowling, Jay W. -and Dane L. Harwood: Music Cognition. Faltin, New York: Academic Press, 1986. Peter: Phanomenologie der musikalischen Form: Eine Experimentalpsychologische Untersuchung zur Wahrnehmung des musikalischen Materials und der musikalischen Syntax. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1979. Gibson, Don B.: "The Aural Perception of Nontraditional Chords in Selected Theoretical Relation. ships: A Computer-Generated Experiment" in Journal of Research in Music Education, 34/1 (1986) pp. 5-23. Lake, William Eastman: Melodic Perception and Cognition: The Influence of Tonality. Doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan 1987. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1987. Miller, R.: "An Introduction to Multidimensional Scaling for the Study of Musical Perception" in Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education 102 (Fall 1989) pp. 60-73. Pederson, Darhl and Pederson Nancy: "The Relationship between Pitch. Recognition and Vocal Pitch Production in Sixth-Grade Students" in Journal of Research in Music Education, (Fall 1970) pp. 265-272. Petzold, Robert G.: "Auditory Perception by Children" Education, 17/1 (Spring 1969) pp. 82-87. in Journal Poppensieker, Karin: Musikpadagogik - Forschung und Lehre, Band musikalischer Wahmemungsfahigkeit. Mainz: Schott, 1986. 250 of Research in Music 23: Die Entwicklung Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Rasch, R.A. and R. Plomp: "The Perception of Musical Tones" in Diana Deutsch (Ed.), The Psychology of Music. New York: Academic Press, 1982. Weber, Robert J. and Suellen Brown: "Musical Imagery" in Music Perception, 3/4 (1986) pp. 411426. 2.2.2 Developmental research Abel-Struth, Sigrid: Musikpadagogik - Forschung und Lehre, Band 15: Musikalische Horfiihigkeiten des Kindes. Mainz: Schott, 1979. Flohr, J.W.: "Short-Term Music Instruction and Young Children's Developmental Music Aptitude" in Journal of Research in Music Education, 29/3 (1983) pp. 219-223. Geringer, John: "The Relationship of Pitch-Matching and Pitch Discrimination Abilities of Preschool and Fourth-Grade Students" in Journal of Research in Music Education, (Summer 1983) pp. 93-99. Hargreaves, David J.: The Developmental University Press, 1986. Psychology of Music. Cambridge: Cambrigde Imberty Michel: "Die Bedeutung zeitlicher Strukturen rur die musikalische Entwicklung" in GOOter Kleinen, (Ed.) Musikpadagogische Forschung Band 5: Kind und Musik. Laaber: Laaber, 1984, pp. 106-128. KOOtzel-Hansen,Margrit: "Musikhoren mit Kindem im Elementarbereich" in Gunter Kleinen, (Ed.) Musikpadagogische Forschung Band 5: Kind und Musik. Laaber: Laaber, 1984, pp. 170-177. Ludeke, Rudlof: "Die Entwicklung des musikalischen Horens" in Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Martin-Luther-Universitat Halle Wittenberg, Gesellschafts- und Sprachwissenschaftliche Reihe, 9/1 (January 1962) pp. 15-20. McDonald, Dorothy T. and Gene M. Simons: Musical Growth and Development - Birth through Six. New York: Schirmer Books, 1989. Pahlen, Kurt: Es gibt keine unmosikalischen Kinder! Die Entwicklung der natiirlichen Musikalitat in den ersten Lebensjahren oder eine echte musikalische Friiherziehung. Wiesbaden/Zurich: Orell Fussli, 1989. Peery, Craig J. (Ed.): Music and Child Development. New York: Springer, 1987. Pfleder~r-Zimmerman, Marilyn: "Music Development in Middle Childhood: A Summary of Selected Research Studies" in Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, (Winter 1986) pp. 18-35. Staleva, Lilijana Vitanova: "Development of Music Mentation in Children" in Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, Spring-Summer 1981 pp. 86-91. Taebe1, Donald K.: "The Effect of Various Instructional Modes on Children's Performance of Music Concept Tasks" in Journal of Research in Music Education, 22 (Fall 1974) pp. 170-183. Wieczerkowski, Wilhelm and Hans zur Oeveste: "Theoretische Grundziige der Entwicklungspsychologie" in GOOterKleinen, (Ed.) Musikpadagogische Forschung Band 5: Kind und Musik. Laaber: Laaber, 1984, pp. 87-105. 2.2.3 Learning processes Burroughs, G.E.R. and J.N. Morris: "Factors Involved in Learning a Simple Musical Theme" in British Journal of Educational Psychology, 32 (Feb. 1962) pp. 18-28. Byrd, Audrey S.: Pitch Learning and the Implications for Music Education. doctoral dissertation, Rhodes University 1976. Unpublished Clynes, Manfred: Music, Mind, and Brain - The Neuropsychology of Music. New York: Plenum Press, 1982. 251 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za DeNardo, Gregory F.: "An Assessment of Musical Cognitive Processes used by Children to Compare Phrase Types within a Song" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 50/2 (August 1989) pp. 380-A - 381-A. Deutsch, Diana: "Grouping Mechanisms in Music" in Diana Deutsch (Ed.), The Psychology of Music. New York: Academic Press, 1982. . Gabrielsson, Alf: "Interplay between Analysis and Synthesis in Studies of Music Performance and Music Experience" in Music Perception, 3/1 (Fall 1985) pp. 59. Gagne, Robert M.: The Conditions of Learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1977. Greer, R. Douglas: Design for Music Learning. New York: Teachers College Press, 1980. Gruhn, Wilfried: Wahrnehmen und Verstehen - Untersuchungen zum Verstehensbegriff in der Musik. Wilhelmshaven: Florian Noetzel, 1989. Hiranpradist, Barbara Ruth: Formal Operational Thought as a Dimension of Music Listener Behavior. Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University 1986. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1986. Howell, Peter, Ian Cross and Robert West (Eds): Musical Structure and Cognition. London: Academic Press, 1985. Laske, Otto E.: Music, Memory, and Thought - Explorations in Cognitive Musicology. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Published for The Music department University of Pittsburgh by University Microfilms International, 1977. Long, P.A.: "Relationships between Pitch Memory in Short Melodies and Selected Factors" in Journal of Research in Music Education, 25/4 (1977) pp. 272-282. Maggio, Mary-Claire Schaff: "A MuItitrait-Multimethod Investigation of the Relationship between Music Memory and Spatial Memory" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 51/1 (July 1990) p. 16-A. Meyer-Denkmann, Gertrud: "Wahrnehmungspsychologische und neurophysiologische Aspekte des Musiklernens" in Gunter Kleinen, (Ed.) Musikpadagogische Forschung Band 5: Kind und Musik. Laaber: Laaber, 1984, pp. 151-169. Moog, Helmut: "Uber Eigenarten musikalischen Lernens: Ein Beitrag zu einer musikalischen Lerntheorie" in Giinter Kleinen, (Ed.) Musikpadagogische Forschung Band 5: Kind und Musik. Laaber: Laaber, 1984, pp. 129-150. Orbach, Yael: The Effect of Auditory Discrimination on the Learning of Music Concepts. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Natal-Durban, 1984. Pembrook, Randall G.: "The Effect of Vocalization on Melodic Memory Conservation" in Journal of Music Education 35/3 pp. 155-169. Rotter, Gunther: "Psychologische Aspekte analytischen Horens" in Hermann J. Kaiser, (Ed.) Musikpadagogische Forschung Band 7: Unterrichtsforschung. Laaber: Laaber, 1986, pp.267-283. Rosenthal, David: "A Model for the Process of Listening to Simple Rhythms" in Music Perception, 6/3 (1989) pp. 315-328. Schellenberg, Stephen and Randall S. Moore: "The Effect of Tonal-Rhythmic Context on ShortTerm Memory of Rhythmic and Melodic Sequences" in Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, (Fall 1985) pp. 207-217. Serafme, Mary Louise: The Development of Cognition in Music" in Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, (1983) pp. 1-14. Shuler, Scott Corbin: The Effects of Gordon's Learning Sequence Activities on Music Achievement. Doctoral dissertation, University of Rochester 1986. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1987. 252 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Sloboda, John A.: The Musical Mind: The Cognitive Psychology of Music. Oxford Psychology Series NO.5. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985. Taggart, Cynthia Crump: "An Investigation of the Hierarchical Nature of the Stages of Tonal Audiation" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 50/10 (April 1990) p. 3176-A. Walsh, Stephen: "Musical Analysis: Hearing is Believing?" in Music Perception, 2/2 (Winter 1984) pp. 237-244. Wolf, Thomas: "A Cognitive Model for Musical Sight-Reading" in Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 5/1 (January 1976) pp. 142-171. 2.2.4 Phenomena such as perfect pitch, tone deafness and chromesthesia Barkowsky, John J.: "An Investigation into Pitch Identification Behavior of Absolute Pitch and Relative pitch subjects" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 48/7 (January 1988) p. 1688-A. Heyde, Eva Marie: Was ist absolutes Horen? Eine musikpsychologische Munchen: Profil, 1987. Untersuchung. Naude, Dion C.: 'n Ondersoek na die verskynsel wat algemeen as "toondoofheid" bekendstaan. Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Stellenbosch 1986. Rush, Mark Alan: "An Experimental Investigation of the Effectiveness of Training on Absolute Pitch in Adult Musicians" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 50/4 (October 1989) p.826-A. 2.2.5 Miscellaneous Biock, Hans-Reinhard: Zur Intonationsbeurteilung kontextbezogener sukzessiver Intervalle. Kinner Beitdige zur Musikforschung, Akustische Reihe Band 6. Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1975. Ely, Mark Christopher: "The Effects of Timbre on Intonational Performance and Perception by College Performers of Selected Woodwind Instruments" in Dissertation Abstracts International, 49/9 (March 1989) p. 2442-A. Enders, Bernd: Studien zur Durchhorbarkeit Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1981. und Intonationsbeurteilung von Akkorden. Gembris, Heiner: "Situative Bedingungen und Effekte des Musikharens" in Hermann J. Kaiser, (Ed.) Musikpadagogische Forschung Band 7: Unterrichtsforschung. Laaber: Laaber, 1986, pp. 253-266. Hassler, Marianne: Musikalisches Talent und raumliche Begabung. Doctoral dissertation, Eberhard-Karls-University Tubingen, 1984. Tiibingen: Balk, 1984. Love, Diana Bonham: The Relationship of Tempo, Pattern Length, and Grade Level on the Recognition of Rhythm Patterns. Doctoral dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 1988. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International, 1989. Rauchfleisch, Udo: Mensch und Musik: Versuch eines Briickenschlags zwischen Psychologie und Musik. Winterthur/Switzerland: Amadeus, 1986. Riemann, Hugo: Uber das musikalische Horen. Doctoral dissertation, University of Gattingen. Leipzig: Publisher unknown, 1874. Sink, Patricia E.: "Effects of Rhythmic and Melodic Alterations and Selected Musical Experiences on Rhythmic Processing" in Journal of Research in Music Education, 32/3 (1984), pp. 177-193. Warner, Theodor: Das Undurchhorbare - Beitrage zur Horpsychologie und Didaktik Moderne. Baden-Baden: Agis, 1969. 253 der Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za APPENDIXB IHT(CAAT!D WITH ••• 1111 u ~". POL" o- -du:j).', .• to ._ ::.- ~ -- ~) ( " :: ~ ~ > I !' ,. ~ NN I ~ C 1 0 Co [ :lo "' l 'I +- ~ ..; MN .0 - :- J- C'Il N c: .( - iilo .•. "" ~I J NN •• ~ ) 0 Co Cl:l II , I "' 1~ c = ---.., ::;, <1J 0 1 .•.. , , =I~ .•.. c " ='~ , 260 , , ~ .•.. =! , c lei ., ,.. •.... N 0\- If.. If.. 12 1. "I ~ 2 ~2 ft.~ \~ f. ~ 1'1-.. pp .......• I I suI laslo T" pp ~ I -, .. "V ___ ... ....•..• suI taslo 1 ~ I ,....;.., W~ I'V::: ~ sui pont. o I sui pont., senza vibr. 0 2 3 sui pont., senza dbI'. 0 J=60 vol. 1 duetti per due violini ? ,......, ,., 2 2 .......• I ___ I ~ I .::: . - I ___ BELA ~ IV ord. f) I ... '-.!.!- sui pont., s!'nza vibr. ~ I ~ .= .u • ~ -I~- IV u~~ ord. vibr. T' I .. , 1\ ! (1925) I3S .. I ~- ord. vibr. ord .......• ord I~ luciano berio ::3. 5' o n o ~ CIl ~ - CIQ Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Dallam kodgomolyagban - Melody in the Mist from Mikrokosmos IV, Nr. 107 Prepared Bela Bartok score: The missing parts are to be dictated or improvised vocally or instrumentally. Melody in the Mist Melodie dans la brume Tranquillo, t < £ QI . S!@: "-: .., .. ••• ,.. II ~I QI .:.oI1lJII Q,I o .~ ..•. .•. QI :~ ~ ~ -0 ~ < QI ~ .. .. Qj II •••• iIlJ .... '" ~ ..• - I< ~ I ••••• I•.•.• ' < ~ 266 "1 1 (k)i (0%) (* N = 5,43,40,88: Percentages were calculated taking into account only the respondents who indicated Seventeen (a). The cumulative frequencies exceed the value of 100% because of multiple indications.) 1 2 3 4 Pop Music (Fusion, American Pop, Rock) Middle Ages (Ars Nova, Ars Antiqua, plainsong) Self-composed Other (Charts hits, Folklore, Ethnic Canadian Music, Raga, Gamalan, Japanese music) Question Twenty Concerning publications, communication and research on Aural Training didactics: (Please choose three of thefollowing statements) (a) There are enough articles on the didactics of Aural Training in music periodicals. (b) I would like to see more articles published on Aural Training in music periodicals. (c) Teachers of Aural Training have sufficient professional contact with each other. (d) I would like to see more study groups and workshops on the didactics of Aural Training. (e) Sufficient rt!search is being done in the field of Aural Training. (f) More research should be done in thefield of Aural Training. 319 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Table 24 Response frequencies for Question Twenty RSA FRG USA ALL (t) 0(0%) 6 (85.7%) 0(0%) 5 (71.4%) 0(0%) 6 (85.7%) 7 (10.1 %) 37 (53.6%) 6 (8.7%) 38 (55.1%) 6 (8.7%) 43 (62.3%) 6 (11.3%) 36 (67.9%) 1 (1.9%) 41 (77.4%) 5 (9.4%) 42 (79.2%) 13 (10.1%) 79 (61.2%) 7 (5.4%) 84 (65.1%) 11 (8.5%) 91 (70.5%) Missing cases: 1 (14.3) 17 (24.6%) 3 (5.7%) 21 (16.3) N =7 N = 69 N = 53 N = 129 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (The cumulative frequencies exceed the value of 100% because of multiple indications.)1 1 Some respondents did not indicate three answers but only one or two. Due to this, (a+b+missing cases), (c+d+missing cases) and (e+f+missing cases) do not equal 100% in all cases. General comments: More research should be done based on fmdings of the computer-student interaction (USA); There are enough articles, but often of low quality (RSA); More realistic research should be done (USA); More research on the methodology of Music Theory should be done in order to base the didactics of Aural Training on sound historical facts (FRG); I don't know any Aural Training periodical (FRG). Question Twenty-one Do you use a computer in your Aural Training tuition? (a) (b) Yes No Table 25 Response frequencies for Question Twenty-one RSA FRG USA ALL (a) (b) 4 (57.1%) 3 (42.9%) 7 (10.1 %) 62 (89.8%) 39 (73.6%) 14 (26.4%) 50 (38.8%) 79 (61.2%) Missing cases: 0(0%) o o o N =7 N = 69 (0%) (0%) N = 53 (0%) N = 129 General comments: The student may decide to use supplemental computer instruction in our laboratory (USA); Yes, but need more (USA); Yes, supplemental work (USA); No, but facilities are available for self-help (USA); Computers are available to students who need extra work but are not used much in Aural Training - mainly in theory drills for chord recognition, etc. (USA); Yes, in our undergraduate programme only as a supplement to classroom work and tapes (RSA). 320 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Questions Twenty-two and Twenty-three The results of Questions Twenty-two and Twenty-three were combined because both questions sought reasons why lecturers were neglecting the use of the computer. The (b) part of Question Twenty-two (I have subject-related didactical objections) was expanded by combining it with Question Twenty-three (/fyou have indicated answer 22b. which o/the/ollowing apply?) The combined Question is as follows: Why do you not use a computer in your Aural Training? (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) '(f) (g) (h) I do not know enough about existing Aural Training programmes (software). I find the synthesized sounds unnatural and not aesthetic. Single elements such as intervals and chords are practised outside of a musical context. Computer programmes are too limited. The technical environment. e.g. the right cable connections. combinations o/switches. etc.• causes inconvenience. Programmes are not user-friendly. Thefinancial commitment is too big. Other .....................................................................•................................................ Table 26 Response frequencies for Questions Twenty-two and Twenty-three RSA FRG USA ALL (g) (h)i1 (h)ii2 (h)iii3 (h)iv4 (h)v5 (h)vi6 1 (33.3%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 1 (33.3%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 3 (100%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 1 (33.3%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 2 (66.7%) 21 (33.9%) 25 (40.3%) 12 (19.4%) 13 (21%) 18 (29%) 1 (1.6%) 12 (19.4%) 12 (19.4%) 4 (6.5%) 4 (6.5%) 4 (6.5%) 4 (6.5%) 22 (35.5%) 5 (35.7%) 2 (14.3%) 0(0%) 2 (14.3%) 2 (14.3%) 1 (7.1 %) 5 (35.7%) 1 (7.1 %) 4 (28.6%) 1 (7.1 %) 1 (7.1 %) 1(7.1%) 8 (57.1%) 27 (34.2%) 27 (34.2%) 12 (15.2%) 16 (20.3%) 20 (25.3%) 2 (2.5%) 20 (25.3%) 13 (16.5%) 8 (10.1%) 6 (7.6%) 5 (6.3%) 5 (6.3%) 32 (40.5%) Missing cases: 0(0%) o (0%) 0(0%) o (0%) = N = N = N = (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) N 3 62 14 79* (* N = 3. 62, 14, 79: Percentages were calculated taking into account only the respondents who indicated Twenty-one (b). The cumulative frequencies exceed the value of 100% because of multiple indications.) 1 2 3 4 5 There is no computer available at our music department for Aural Training purposes We are in a transitional phase: it is planned for the future Computer-assisted Aural training is unnecessary Computers are inhuman: At our school we want to maintain a mostly teacher-pupil humanistic approach. We don't want it automated (USA); Aural Training requires the same individual approach necessary for instrumental teaching and because of this CAT is not realizable (FRG); Why do we meet in groups if each group member is "connected" to a computer? (FRG); According to my knowledge the computer can by no means replace the teacher (RSA). Computer-assisted Aural Training is a suitable for homework purposes 321 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 6 Other reasons: Lack of adequate rooms (space) (FRG and USA); Lack of time to thoroughly examine the possibilities of CAT; (FRG); I prefer "live" music (FRG); CAT can be helpful in preparatory instruction but it is not creative enough on a tertiary level (FRG); Weak students benefit more from classroom-based instruction with the use of the piano; (FRG); The use of the piano in classroom-based instruction enables a more flexible methodological approach in comparison to CAT (FRG); I love the sound of the piano and the feel of the keys under my fingers (FRG); The instruments at hand in classroom-based instruction are more comprehensive and lively if they can be used according to the actual teaching situation (FRG); I believe that Aural Training takes places in that the student has to react by means of producing sound. If the computer cannot interpret this sound and evaluate it, it does not have the possibility to meet the student's basic needs (RSA); The imitation of timbre is insufficient. Sine waves are not equal to "natural tone imitation". "Natural" = the sum of sine waves. The ear was not designed for sine wave "sound happenings" (Schallereignisse) (FRG); Pitch is misleading - prefer acoustic sounds (USA); I don't think a programme of sufficient sophistication and authentic sound exists (USA); Group education with CAT seems to be problematic (FRG and USA); Related to the contractual obligations and contractual arrangement of my job (USA); A computer programme is limited by the knowledge/philosophy of the programmer. Therefore it is important to examine the didactics of Music Theory in order to prevent misleading students into listening falsely according to so-called historical rules that are not valid. (FRG); The few advantages of CAT do not weigh up to the fmancial burden and organisation attached to it (RSA). General comments: We don't have the facilities (computers). I would use them if we had them, and if it was a structured part of our ear training curriculum (USA); J did not know about CAT until this Questionnaire reached me (FRG). 322 'S 1 2 3 4 • N 7 N = 62 12 (19.4%) 21 (33.9%) 27 (46.8%) 21 (33.9%) 26 (41.9%) 23(37.1%) 35 (56.5%) 35 (56.5%) 5 (7.9%) 1 (1.6%) 3 (4.8%) 1 (1.6%) 2 (3.2%) N = 7 0(0%) 2 (28.6%) 6 (85.7%) 3 (42.9%) 4 (57.1 %) 4 (57.1 %) 4 (57.1 %) 4 (57.1 %) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 1 (14.3%) 3 (42.9%) CAT N = 69 12 (17.4%) 23 (33.3%) 33 (47.8%) 24 (34.8%) 30 (43.5%) 27 (39.1 %) 39 (56.5%) 39 (56.5%) 5 (7.2%) 1 (1.4%) 3 (4.3%) 2 (2.9%) 5 (7.2%) Both USA N = 14 1 (7.1 %) o o o o 13 (92.9%) 10 (71.4%) 7 (50%) 5 (35.7%) 5 (35.7%) 7 (50%) 5 (35.7%) (0%) (0%) (0%) (0%) 1 (7.1%) No CAT N = 39 1 (2.6%) o o o (79.5%) (79.5%) (70.2%) (64.1 %) (74.4%) (61.5%) (64.1 %) (0%) 1 (2.6%) (0%) (0%) 4 (10.3%) 31 31 18 25 29 24 25 CAT N = 53 2 (3.8%) o o o (83.0%) (77.4%) (47.2%) (56.6%) (64.2%) (58.8%) (56.6%) (0%) 1 (1.9%) (0%) (0%) 5 (9.4%) 44 41 25 30 34 31 30 Both N = 79 13 (16.5%) 37 (46.8%) 50 (63.3%) 31 (39.2%) 33 (41.8%) 30 (38%) 43 (54.4%) 42 (53.2%) 5 (6.3%) 1 (1.3%) 3 (3.8%) 1 (1.3%) 3 (3.8%) No CAT ALL N = 50 1 (2%) o o (74%) (76%) (46%) (64%) (50%) (62%) (64%) (0%) 2 (4%) (0%) 1 (2%) 8 (16%) 37 38 23 32 25 31 32 CAT N = 129 14 (10.9%) 74 (57.4%) 78 (60.5%) 54 (41.9%) 65 (50.4%) 65 (50.4%) 74 (57.4%) 74 (57.4%) 5 (3.9%) 3 (2.3%) 3 (2.3%) 2 (1.6%) 11 (8.5%) Both. I am not at all interested in computer-assisted Aural Training Study plan for students: diagnose problem areas and recommend the next step of practice/learning Error detection using examples from the music literature Intonation software Other possibilities No CAT. CAT. Both: In the first category percentages were calculated taking into account only the respondents who indicated that they did not make use of computer-assisted instruction !n Que~tio~ Tweno/-one (b). In the second category percenta~es ",:ere cal,:ulated taking into accoun.t only the r~spondents who indicated that they did mak~ use of computer-assisted mstrucllon 10 Questton Twenty-one (a). Both groups were combmed 10 the thIrd category. The cumulatIve frequencIes exceed the value of 100% because of muillple indications. 4 = N = 3 = N 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) (0 Missing cases: 7 (100%) 4 (57.1 %) 5 (71.4%) 5 (71.4%) 4 (57.1 %) 4 (57.1 %) 5 (71.4%) 0(0%) 1 (14.3%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 1 (14.3 %) (g) 1 (h)i (h)ii2 (h)iii3 (h)iv4 (h)v5 4 (100%) 1 (25%) 2 (50%) 3 (75%) 2 (50%) 3 (75%) 3 (75%) 0(0%) 1 (25%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 1 (25%) No CAT 3 (100%) 3 (100%) 3 (100%) 2 (66.7%) 2 (66.7%) 1 (33.3%) 2 (66.7%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) FRG Both No CAT CAT RSA Table 27 Summary of the results of Question Twenty-four/Thirty-nine Which of thefollowing features of computer programmes will meet your expectations for Aural Training? Indicate also features that seem.to be utopian. (a) Programmes to check sight singing with regard to interval, intonation and rhythmic mistakes. (b) Programmes where the teacher can include his/her own examples and examples from the music repertoire. (c) Perfectly sampled sounds. (Sounds that are used in computer programmes/synthesizers/samplers that resemble traditional music instruments perfectly.) (d) Programmes in which short excerpts of works are played. Questions are asked about the character, style, type, form, harmonic content, etc. (e) The possibility to manipulate music on records/CDs etc. for Aural Training purposes with the help of a computer. (Hyper-Media) (f) The possibility to project a score on the monitor with the help of a computer reading apparatus, in order to select and sound one voice, instrumental group, e.g. thefirst violins, etc. (g) Programmes with examplesfrom the music repertoire (score appears on the monitor) in which any chosen sounding or written voicers) can be left out. This provides the possibility to do sight singing and improvisation within a musical context. (h) Other possibilities/utopia: . Question Twenty-fourlThirty-nine Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Responses to Questions 24(h)/39(h) I am not at all interested in CAT: I cannot think of any desirable computer programmes; (People who left this question unanswered were also categorized under this heading.) Study plan for students in which problem areas are diagnosed and the next step of practice/learning is recommended: Evaluation of mistakes and prescription for further study; the computer (programme) should not only indicate that an answer was wrong, but also what was wrong, and supply exercises to practise this specific deficiency. Error detection using examples from the music literature: Computer programmes that prepare students for their career, e.g. as singers, orchestra players or conductors, would meet my expectations. Unfortunately no such programmes are available. An example of my expectations is: While following the score and listening to the piece being performed, the student should indicate which orchestra player made rhythmic mistakes, played wrong notes, or had intonation problems. Intonation software: Programmes in which intonation problems in both natural and equal-tempered tuning systems are treated; Out of tune intervals should be corrected. Other possibilities: Improved computer programmes. Some devoted to correct chord progressions in tonal music; Drill! (USA); Programmes which test the "building blocks" such as triads, chords and resolutions, scales, modes etc. so that more time can be spent on more musical aspects (USA); Software for NeXt computers (USA); Beyond my expectations but sounds great! (USA); Programmes enabling students to explore musical contexts by modifying given examples, re-scoring for different timbres, renovating, etc. Multi-media computer environments (USA); Discovery learning (creating musical objects and assembling them to reproduce an excerpt) (USA); Generally, the more tutorial (instead of merely a countability) the better (USA); All of these things seem technically possible either now or soon. Whether they are pedagogically desirable is another question. I don't see much value in, for example, your (f) possibility, when I can give a student a score, play the requisite line on the piano, and then play the whole recorded example. Putting a computer into the process doesn't change the pedagogical situation there (USA); Most of these capabilities are now available to me (USA); None are utopian - we do them all (USA); The possibility for singers to do sight singing with orchestra accompaniment (FRG); My (not at all utopian goal) is to have programmes which allows for flexible input of answers combined with simple usage instructions (user-friendliness) (FRG); The existence of exercise libraries that can be expanded by the teacher (FRG); Programmes in which the timbre, rhythni, melody, harmony and form can be influenced (FRG); The translation of sound into music notation (FRG); The manipulation of the sound spectrum (sound analysis and synthesis) and the spatial disposition of sounds and parts of the musical score (FRG); The computer indicates errors in dictation (RSA); Possibilities for Graphic Audiovisuals - Animated screens - music is motion, therefore the visuals should move - including light-intensities and various forms of graphic scores - to be used to highlight one or other parameter/facet of the music (RSA); I would be open to any possibility of gaining aural skills (RSA and FRG); Questions Twenty-fivelForty Do you make use of other Aural Training "Programmes" (not computer bound) ? (a) No (b) (c) (d) Music examples on magnetic tape/cassette for dictation. Music examples on magnetic tape/cassette with questions and multiple choice answers. "Ghost texts": parts of a score is left out, and the student has to fill in the missing information according to the assignment and what he/she hears. Other:....................................................•............................................................. (e) 324 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Questions Twenty-sixlForty-one - Please give a short description of the "programme(s)" that you indicated in Questions 25/40 according to the content, method (manner) and purpose: The results of Questions Twenty-five/Forty and Twenty-six/Forty-one were combined in one table. Table 28 Response frequencies for Questions twenty five and Twenty-six/Forty and Forty-one) RSA FRG USA ALL 2 (28.6%) 26 (37.7%) 23 (43.4%) 51 (39.5%) N =7 N = 69 N = 53 N = 129 (b) (c) (d) (e)i1 (e)ii2 (e)iii3 (e)iv4 (e)vS (e)vi6 (e)vii7 (e)viii8 4 (80%) 0(0%) 1 (20%) 1 (20%) 3 (60%) 0(0%) 1 (20%) 2 (40%) 1 (20%) 0(0%) 1 (20%) 34 (79.1%) 1 (2.3%) 15 (34.9%) 7 (16.3%) 2 (4.7%) 3 (7%) 5 (11.6%) 6 (14%) 6 (14%) 8 (18.6%) 7 (16.3%) 24 (80%) 6 (20%) 2 (6.7%) o (0%) 7 (23.3%) o (0%) o (0%) 4 (13.3%) 5 (16.7%) 4 (13.3%) 4 (13.3%) 62 (79.5%) 7 (9%) 18 (23%) 8 (10.3%) 12 (15.4%) 3 (3.8%) 6 (7.7%) 12 (15.4%) 12 (15.4%) 12 (15.4%) 12 (15.4%) Missing cases: 0(0%) 3 (7%) 2 (6.7%) 5 (6.4%) N = 5 N = 43 N = 30 N = 78* (a) (* N = 5,43, 30, 78: Percentages were calculated taking into account only the respondents who indicated that they did make use of NCAT. The cumulative frequencies exceed the value of 100% because of multiple indications.) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 4 Aural analysis Commercially available programmed textbooks with cassettes: TAP Master (USA}, Horacek and Letkoff (USA and RSA)4, Leo Kraft (USA), A. Trubitt and R. Hines (USA), Kral and Zopf (FRG), Benward workbooks and cassettes (USA); Michael Schmoll (FRG), B. Fawcett Harrap (USA); Cassettes for "playing by ear" (Nachspielen) Cassettes for recognition of timbre For homework purposes Cassettes with "building-block" exercises (intervals, triads, etc.) Percentage of people who indicated that they use examples from the music literature Other "programmes": Cassettes with examples of the [mal examination in Aural Training (FRG); Cassettes with examples of the entrance test and placement tests (USA); Examples from the music literature with special aural assignments such as transcription (dictation), harmonical analysis, graphical presentation, description of form (FRG and USA); Text comparisons (FRG); Each student has to create a short score and has to rehearse that with the group in order to develop inner hearing, creativity, pedagogical skills and error detection (FRG); Students work on their own and hand in weekly assignments for assessment. No limit is placed on amount of work to be handed in and students can work at their own pace. A realistic minimum requirement is set as DP (Duly Performed). (RSA); Error detection (FRG and USA); For first-year college study: Brief, instructorcomposed examples, recorded piano sound source. Covers basic (readiness) skills: High-Low points in melody, skips location in melody, similar/different melodies or rhythms, melodic and rhythmic error detection, identification of whole and half steps - short rhythms (location in phrase), melody memory (listen and sing back), multiple choice type of Questions on melody, discuss characteristics of a melody. For secondyear college study: Two-voice counterpoint (composed by instructor and taken from the music literature) - as dictation; description of mode, meter, opening and closing gestures in melody; identification of melody structural pitches; Common practice period and 20th-eentury rhythm dictation; melodic error detection (pitch and rhythm); melodic dictation; harmonic dictation; tonic, dominant, subdominant function, bass line and chord analysis - including secondary dominants, Neapolitan and augmented sixth chords (USA). One respondent complained that the pitches on the magnetic tapes were not always accurate and that especially the absolute pitch possessors had problems with this. 325 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za General comments: Self-developed exercises (ALL) such as "My Self Help Aural Recognition Program (SHARP) _ each cassette with 100 examples of intervals or chords, with an accompanying book with which students may check their answers or give themselves practise quizzes" (USA); The contents of Question Twenty-five can be accomplished by using the piano and the voice (FRG); I also include Jazz and Pop Music examples (FRG); Too many to list briefly. (New individual approaches to teaching sight singing and dictation) (USA); Series of graded examples that progressively become more difficult (USA); All in all sixty individual programmes are organized according to the levels difficulty in learning units (FRG). Question Twenty-seven!Forty-two Would you be interested in a workshop concerning the use of the computer in Aural Training? (a) (b) Yes No Table 29 Response frequencies for Question Twenty-seven/Forty-two RSA FRG USA ALL (a) (b) 6 (85.7%) 0(0%) 43 (62.3%) 20 (29%) 34 (64.2%) 14 (26.4%) 83 (64.3%) 34 (26.4%) Missing cases: 1 (14.3%) 6 (8.7%) 5 (9.4%) 12(9.3%) N = 7 N = 69 N = 53 N = 129 General comments: Contact the Association for Technology in Music Instruction (USA); Our university has two to three workshops a year (USA). Question Twenty-eight!Forty-three In your opinion, which aspects of Aural Training are not included in this questionnaire that need attention? Table 30 Response frequencies for Question Twenty-eight/Forty-three RSA FRG USA ALL (d)4 (e)5 2 (28.6%) 1 (14.3%) 0(0%) 2 (28.6%) 4 (57.1 %) 2 (2.9%) 2 (2.9%) 7 (10.1%) 1 (1.4%) 26 (37.7%) 3 (5.7%) 2 (3.8%) 2 (3.8%) o (0%) 12 (22.6%) 7 (5.4%) 5 (3.9%) 9 (7%) 3 (2.3%) 42 (32.6%) Missing cases: 1 (14.3%) 39 (56.5%) 36 (67.9%) 76 (58.9%) (a)l (b)2 (c)3 N = 7 N = 69 N = 53 (The cumulative frequencies exceed the value of 100% because of multiple indications.) 326 N = 129 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 1 2 3 4 5 Music psychological aspects of Aural Training: Correlation of music education and music theory research on perception (USA); Sequence of material of learning (Gordon, etc.) (USA); Medical-psycho-acoustical research (FRG); Psychology of the learner; affect of fatigue, anxiety, confidence, acoustics, extraneous noises. Viability of tests, given the stress situation, Le. problem of evaluation (USA); Cognitive perspective _ how do we actually perceive and store sound - surely in some kind of cognitive context (USA); Audiophysiology: Tomatis has a lot to say about people e.g. who can sing, but can't hear; who can hear certain pitches; who can hear and can't sing etc. Ear Cleaning (RSA); Memory (FRG); Stress factors such as fear, concentration problems (FRG); More/other aspects of computer-assisted Aural Training: Lay people's fear of computers (USA); The musicality of computer-generated assignments (FRG); Music and movement: Computers cannot teach the body to sense rhythm - you only asked one question on those lines (USA); Affective decline (FRG); The use of the computer in the classroom vs the use of the computer in a lab where students go to work individually on a volunteer basis (USA); The problem of applying CAT to group instruction (FRG); Objectives and Contents of Aural Training: What skills (precisely) should be developed? When (how long and in what order) should each be taught? (USA); Possibly the (fmal) goals of the total programme (USA and FRG); Approaches to methodology and philosophy of education (USA); Contents (FRG); Cultural differences: More Aural Training in Ethnic Music because the new Music Syllabus for the new S.A. will contain 60% Ethnic as against 40% Western music (RSA); National perspectives (RSA and FRG). Other aspects: Research - transfer of skills e.g.: is dictation good for anything? (RSA); Connection of aural training skills to real music listening (RSA); Aspects of group instruction (FRG); Aural Training as major subject (FRG); Evaluation systems (FRG); Curriculum design (USA); Entrance requirements (FRG);' Diagnosing aural problems and solving them (RSA); How to help the marginal student (RSA); A study of students who cannot match pitch, or who can only match pitches within a relatively narrow range of pitches (Le. a perfect fifth) (USA); The transition of Aural Training into Aural Analysis (FRG); Different methods of Dictation (FRG); Individual innovations in teaching sight singing and dictation concepts and learning techniques (USA); Inner hearing (USA and FRG); Polyphonic awareness (USA); The independent work of students in Aural Training during their music studies such as meeting in small groups (FRG); Education of Aural Training lecturers (FRG); Students have great difficulty transferring shorter "sterile" examples (models) to musical contexts. Yet recitals and concerts deal with such contexts. Much more attention needs to be given to the development of aural skills applied to context (USA); Integrating Aural Training into instrumental music studies right from the beginning, integration vs. differentiation (RSA); Aural Training for the general listener (amateur) (RSA); Social training by means of music (FRG); The importance of listening to each other and reacting upon each other when performing with other people (FRG); Unfavourable teaching conditions such as lack of sound isolation in classrooms (FRG); Historical relativity of Aural Training (FRG); Aural Training based on not equal-tempered tuning systems and micro tonality (FRG); Acoustics, tuning systems, timbre identification/terminology (RSA); Is our only goal eye-ear correlation or is there room for oral traditions? (RSA); the question of musicality (FRG); The integration of a set of complex skills which develop out of natural musical behaviour (RSA); Achievement differences within a group of 10-12 students and the problems attached to it (FRG); The dependence (relationship) of music perception on the terminology and methodology of Music Theory (FRG); The separation of music disciplines such as Harmony and Counterpoint leads to stagnation and concentration on isolated aspects such as the root of a chord (FRG); Improvisation, keyboard harmony, discovery learning (RSA); The difference between drill (concentrating on isolated methods such as dictation) and education (inner structure of music, analytical listening) (FRG); Intonation problems (FRG and USA); Students' attitudes towards Aural Training (FRG); Aural Training should also incorporate knowledge of the human nature (FRG); Judging musical performance (USA); Sight singing methodologies (Jersild vs structural reductions, etc) (USA); The relationship of analysis to the teaching of aural skills (USA); The influence that various different types of hearers has on the methodology of Aural Training (FRG); Instructions to self-instruction (fRG); How to get variation in Aural Training (RSA). Question Twenty-nine Which computer programmes (software) do you use? (a) Commercially available software: (Name(s) ofprogramme(s) and address (es) ofretailer(s): (b) Self-programmed software 327 . Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Table 31 Response frequencies for Question Twenty-nine RSA FRG USA ALL (a)i1 (a)ii2 (a)iii3 (a)iv4 (a)vS (a)vi6 (a)vii7 (a)viii8 (b) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 1 (25%) 4 (100%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 5 (71.4%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 4 (57.1 %) 2 (28.6%) o 18 (46.2%) 5 (10%) 6 (12%) 10 (20%) 12 (24%) 9 (18%) 14 (28%) 6 (12%) 18 (36%) 20 (40%) Missing cases: 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) N =4 N = 7 N = 39 N = 50* (0%) 6 (15.4%) 10 (25.6%) 11 (28.2%) 5 (12.8%) 14 (35.9%) 6 (l5.4%~ 14 (35. %) (* N = 4, 7, 39, 50: Percentages were calculated taking into account only the respondents who indicated Twenty-one (a). The cumulative frequencies exceed the value of 100% because of multiple indications.) 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 Audimax Benward McGamut Practica Musica Guido Temporal Acuity Products: e.g. Catch the key; Pick the pitch; Rhythm drills; WMU Dictation Series: Diatonic chords; Harmonic dictator; Theory sampler; Jazz Dictator; Rhythmic dictator; Interval Mania; Harmony drills, Set I; Melodious Dictator. Products from Educational Courseware Other commercially available software: Perceive; Micro"Notes Music Theory; Explorations; Aura; Computerkolleg; CAMUS; C-Lab Notator (sequencer programmeS); Professional Performer (sequencer programme); Mini Trax (public domain software) also several CD-ROM programs; We have an extensive library of programs for Macintosh and Apple II computer; Use sequencer a lot with aural interaction. Question Thirty With regard to commercially available software: why did you choose this (these) specific program(s)? The answers to this question varied so much that a statistical interpretation was impossible. Responses included words and phrases such as: Usable (FRG), Guido was the only available programme at the time (USA); The Dictator series was almost the only available Apple software for several years (USA); It is only one of a few German programmes written for the Atari (FRG); It is only one of a few programmes written for the Macintosh (USA); Macintosh products are both versatile and user-friendly, unlike those for Apple II, ffiM etc. (RSA); The best amongst those available (FRG and USA); It was available at our school (USA); Lack of availability of good quality material at the time purchased (USA); There are not many to choose from (USA); Completeness, flexibility, content, quality, interaction with student, .scoring features (USA); They were chosen by others before I arrived (USA); Broad spectrum of training (FRG and USA); Efficient (USA); Because the programme was developed at our university (FRG); Familiarity (USA); Because of costs involved (FRG); Graduated order of difficulty (USA); Least worst (USA); Provides for the needs (USA). S 'Sequencers are to the digital music world what tape decks are to the analog music world. Like tape decks, sequencers record and store music data, allowing the musician to edit that music, record multiple tracks, listen to and play that same music, and modify it to his or her particular liking.' H.P. Newquist, Music & Technology. New York: Billboard Books, 1989 p. 129. 328 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Question Thirty-one If you have indicated "self-programmed software" in Question 29, why did you design such a program? (a) Software programming is an interestingfield and I wanted to try it out myself. (b) I am not satisfied with the commercially available software. (c) My programmers) has (have) other features than t1:ze ommercially available software. Which c features? (d) Other: . Table 32 Response frequencies for Question Thirty-one RSA FRG USA ALL 2 (100%) 2 (100%) 4 (22.2%) 6 (30%) 9 (50%) 11 (55%) (c)l (d)2 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 1 (50%) 0(0%) 8 (44.4%) 2(11.1%) 9 (45%) 2 (10%) Missing cases: 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) N =0 N = 2 N = 18 N = 20* (a) (b) (* N = 0, 2, 18,20: Percentages were calculated taking into account only the respondents who indicated Twenty-nine (b). The cumulative frequencies exceed the value of 100% because of multiple indications.) 1 2 High-level graphical interface, strong "infInitive" feel, ability to use any CD (USA); Clef training; sight reading (ability to read ahead, graded dictation) (USA); Uses real music examples, not random. Also, a version using CD-ROM will become available. It plays commercial CDs (USA); Direct microphone input to pitch extractor card which converts input to notation and scoring/progress records (USA); Real-time harmonization, improvisation, playing by ear (USA); Harmonic Dictation Exercises in which different voices (SATB) are emphasized with each playing (USA); Concentration on melodies from literature; harmonic patterns for Wittlich and Martin text (USA); Inclusion of modulations (FRG). Enables us to have a more expansive series. Benward did not have enough examples in some areas for those students who require more time as well as variables (USA); Software design was less expensive and had more possibilities for the students (USA). Question Thirty-two Would you be willing to make available your self-programmed software for research purposes? Naturally the copyright will be protected and the program will not be copied or circulated without your permission. In case you agree, please supply me with your address. (a) (b) Yes No Table 33 Response frequencies for Question Thirty-two RSA FRG USA ALL 0(0%) 0(0%) 2 (100%) 7 (38.9%) 9 (45%) (b) 0(0%) 11 (61.1) 11 (55%) Missing cases: 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) N =0 N = 2 N = 18 N = 20* (a) (* N = 0,2, 18,20: Percentages were calculated taking into account only the respondents who indicated Twenty-nine (b).) 329 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Three of the persons who were willing to make available their software distribute their programs commercially. Some persons indicated that they were not willing to make their software available because it is sold commercially. Letters were written to the nine respondents. One respondent answered that his software had nothing to do with Aural Training. Only one respondent actually sent a copy of his software. Question Thirty-three Which computer do you use? (a) IBM/IBM compatible (b) Apple Macintosh (c) Atan (d) Other . Table 34 Response frequencies for Question Thirty-three RSA FRG USA ALL (a) (b) (c) (d)i1 (d)ii2 3 (75%) 1 (25%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 2 (50%) 1 (14.3%) 0(0%) 7 (100%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 13 (33.3%) 25 (64.1%) 2 (5.1 %) 20 (51.3%) 3 (7.7%) 17 (34%) 26 (52%) 9 (18%) 20 (40%) 5 (10%) Missing cases: 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) N =4 N =7 N = 39 N = 50* (* N = 4, 7, 39, 50: Percentages were calculated taking into account only the respondents who indicated Twenty-one (a). The cumulative frequencies exceed the value of 100% because of multiple indications.) 1 2 Apple (II, 11+, lIe, lIe, IIgs) Other computers (Control Data, NeXt and Sun platforms) Question Thirty-four Which synthesizer/keyboard/sampler RolandD70: (if any) do you use with your computer? Please give the full name, e.g. Table 35 Response frequencies for Question Thirty-four RSA FRG USA ALL (a)l (b)2 (c)3 (d)4 (e)5 0(0%) 3 (74%) 1 (25%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 5 (71.4%) 2 (28.6%) 3 (42.9%) 11 (28.2%) 3 (7.7%) 24 (61.5%) 4 (10.3%) 4 (10.3%) 11 (22%) 6 (12%) 30 (60%) 6 (12%) 7 (14%) Missing cases: 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) N =4 N =7 N = 39 N = 50* (* N = 4, 7, 39, 50: Percentages were calculated taking into account only the respondents who indicated Twenty-one (a). The cumulative frequencies exceed the value of 100% in some cases because of multiple indications.). 1 2 No extra hardware equipment used Sound Cards: The University of Delaware Sound Card; ffiM Music Feature Sound Card 330 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 3 4 5 Synthesizers and/or Sample players: Yamaha DX7; Yamaha YPR 9; Yamaha PF 2000; Yamaha TG77; Yamaha SY55; Yamaha DS55, DX21, DX27; Roland SY22; Roland D70; Roland S550; Roland D50; Roland V220, Roland U11O; Roland W30; Roland DllO; Korg Ml; Numerous models ranging from Casio CZl; Prophet 2000; Yamaha CLP 350;Casio MT240; Ensoniq ESQ80; Kawai K I II; Kawai PH50; Kawai FS680; Kawai K-4; Casio CZlOO; Kurzweil K1200; Kurzweil KlOOOSpecial Edition Sampler: AKA! S-9OO;Ensoniq EPS; Kurzweil 250 Yamaha Clavinova . Other hardware equipment machine) (USA). indicated: MIDI-Merger PMM-44, self-developed tap-board (FRG); Korg DDDI (drum Question Thirty-five Which of the following applies to your teaching situation? (a) The computer is used only as a practice instrument, for homework purposes, outside of the Aural Training Class. (b) The computer is used only as part ofmy teaching. (c) The computer is used as part for teaching and as a practice instrument. Table 36 Response frequencies for Question Thirty-five RSA FRG USA ALL (c) 3 (75%) 0(0%) 1 (25%) 5 (71.4%) 0(0%) 1 (14.3%) 26 (66.6%) o (0%) 13 (33.3%) 34 (68%) o (0%) 15 (30%) Missing cases: 0(0%) 1 (14.3%) 0(0%) 1 (2%) N = 4 N = 7 N = 39 N = 50* (a) (b) (* N = 4,7,39,50: Twenty-one (a).) Percentages were calculated taking into account only the respondents who indicated Question Thirty-six Which students make use of the computer? (a) only under-perjonning students (b) only "good" students (c) all students Table 37 Response frequencies for Question Thirty~six RSA (a) FRG USA ALL (c) 1 (25%) 0(0%) 3 (75%) 3 (42.9%) 1 (14.3%) 1 (14.3%) o 3 (7.7%) (0%) 36 (92.3%) 7 (14%) 1 (2%) 40 (80%) Missing cases: 0(0%) 2 (28.6%) 0(0%) 2 (4%) N = 4 N =7 N = 39 N = 50* (b) (* N = 4, 7, 39, 50: Percentages were calculated taking into account only the respondents who indicated Twenty-One (a).) 331 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za General comments: Freshmen - some use by upper .classmen" (USA); We give students a small incentive (60 of 1000 total grade points in a term) to use the computers or the pre-recorded tapes for practice. Perhaps 35% - 40% of the students do so regularly, both good and bad students (USA); All students, but especially under-performing students (RSA). Question Thirty-seven Have the Aural Training achievements of your students improved noticeably since you have staned to use the computer? (a) (b) Yes No (c) I have not been using the computer very long, so the results are not noticeable yet. Table 38 Response frequencies for Question Thirty-seven RSA FRG USA ALL (c) 3 (75%) 0(0%) 1 (25%) 1 (14.3%) 0(0%) 6 (85.7%) 17 (43.6%) 8 (20.5%) 14 (35.9%) 21 (42%) 8 (16%) 21 (42%) Missing cases: 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) N =4 N = 7 N = 39 N = 50* (a) (b) (* N = 4, 7, 39, 50: Percentages were calculated taking into account only the respondents who indicated Twenty-one (a).) General comments: I am really not as satisfied as I originally thought I would be (USA); Yes, more or less moderate students (RSA); I have noticed a number of improving students, and others have said that such work has helped them. I think any such practice opportunity will help students (USA); At the moment we are examining this aspect - the results will be available in April 1991 (FRG). . . 332 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Question Tbirty-eigbt If you (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (j) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (1) (m) have answered Yes in Question 37. which o/the/ollowing have improved? Rhythmic skills Interval awareness Harmonic-junctional hearing Timbre perception Dictation Sight Singing Aural analysis Score reading Style recognition Comprehension 0/ musical structures Intonation Memory Other . Table 39 Response frequencies for Question Thirty-eight RSA FRG USA ALL (m)l 2 (66.7%) 3 (100%) 2 (50%) 0(0%) 3 (100%) 0(0%) 1 (33.3%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 1 (33.3%) 0(0%) 2 (66.7%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 1 (100%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 1 (100%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) o (O%) 1 (100%) 7 (41.2%) 14 (82.4%) 13 (76.5%) o (0%) 14 (82.4%) 2 (11.8%) 3 (17.6%) 1 (5.9%) 1 (5.9%) 3 (17.6%) 3 (17.6%) 7 (41.2%) 1 (5.9%) 9 (42.9%) 18 (85.7%) 15 (71.4%) o (0%) 18 (85.7%) 2 (9.5%) 4 (19%) 1 (4.8%) 1 (4.8%) 4 (19%) 3 (14.3%) 9 (42.9%) 2 (9.5%) Missing cases: 0(0%) 0(0%) 0(0%) (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (t) (g) (h) (i) (j) (Ie) (1) N =3 N = N 1 = 17 . 0(0%) N = 21* (* N = 3, 1-, 17, 21: Percentages were calculated taking into account only the respondents who indicated Thirty-seven (a).) The cumulative frequencies exceed the value of 100% because of multiple indications.) 1 Chord recognition (FRG and USA) 333 ~ U) U) i t:l ~ n I;; a ~ 51 rIl ~ '"l 0 ~ C1I 0 c.a ~ .. 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'" 5' > Absolute note names t"" t"" So g Sing on syllables (') o c ::s g. ~ Numbers Doh-based minor Other methods FREQUENCY 0 0 ~ 0 <") (0) 0 lao 0 UI - ~ 0 0- 5'Z >c t""'3 t""'g" .... ..... g~ ::r'0 i ;I ~ 0 (')00 O::r' c" ::sm 5'.5° nOO 'lIl '" 5' 00 3 ~ ~ i ~ (0) 0. '" .. go c ;; .. "0 n m S ; ::r' 0 lao ~ ~ ;I UI Ethnic Others Self-compOsed Middle Ages Pop Music. Jazz African Music Music after 1960 : Twentieth Century up to 19~ Impressionism Late-Romantic RQmantic Classic .Baroque Renaissance • ~ ~ I I r r I , r r o ; i i I , ; j I o N i ! i l I '. i I ; ; , o •••• i j , ; I i ! ; 0 ! (%) 0- FREQUENCY ; i i , j ! o 01 o o •... 'Tl Cl ~ 1;;" m -< ~ II> e. I: .. > S' a- m I: m S" P- '8 -< 0- en .... 00 cfO . ~ t:l en ~ Ethnic Others Self-composed Middle Ages Pop Music Jazz African Music Music after 1960 Twentieth Century up to 1960 Impressionism Late-Romantic Romantic Classic Baroque Renaissance I I I I I I I I I I I o I ! i i ! i ; , ; I I o N i ! ; i 1 , o •••• FREQUENCY ! ; j ; ! 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'< ... n 0 0 'T.l tfQ' Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za APPENDIXH Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Tel.: (0711) 62 84 63 Hasenbergsteige 7000 Stuttgart DUITSLAND Fe bruarie 37 1 1991 Geagte Prof.jDr.jMnr.jMev.jMej. As ingeskrewe doktorsgraadstudent aan die Universiteit van Stellenbosch is ek besig met navorsing op die gebied van gehooropleiding. Dr. Paul Loeb van Zui1enburg is my promotor. 'n Oorsese beurs van die "Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst" het dit vir my moontlik gemaak om oor verskillende metodes van gehooropleiding in Duitsland na te vors. Die ingeslote vraelys vorm dee 1 van 'n uitgebreide studie waarin tradisionele en rekenaargesteundegehooropleiding. asook musiekpsigologiese aspekte van gehooropleiding ondersoek word. Die doe1 van hierdie navorsing is om voorstelle vir 'n nuwe benadering tot die metadiek van gehooropleiding te doen. Ek sal dit hoog op prys stel indien u my met my navorsing kan help deur die vraelys te voltooi, en dit voor einde Mei 1991 terug te stuur. By voorbaat dank! Met vriendelike groete (Mev.) Anri Herbst - 348 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za NAVORSINGSPROJEK 1991: VRAE OOR GEHOOROPLEIDING 349 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 'n Paar riglyne by die invul van die vraelys I. Dir is raadsaam om die vrae eers oorsigrelik deur re lees. U sal merk dar die vraagvolgorde giese riglyn vir die beanrwoording daarsre1. 2. In die meesre gevalle is meer as een antwoord moontlik. Indlen u die gegewe moontlikhede ontoereikend vind, kan u u eie antwoorde op ekstra blaaie insluit. Dit geld ook vir gevalle waar die skryfruimte onvoldoende is. Merk asb. baie duidelik op u aparte blad/blaaie die vraag/vrae wat u kommentarieer. 3. U antwoorde nie. word streng vertroulik behandel en geensins evalueer Baie dankie vir u deelname! 350 'n 10- in terme van reg of verkeerd Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Vrae I. Naam van UniversiteitjTechnikon 2. Word (a) (b) (c) 3. . gehooropleiding aan u UniversiteitjTechnikon aangebied as 'n selfstandige yak? . deel van musiekteorie? dee 1 van , (bv. ritmiese kursusse of danskursusse, instrumentale onderrig, ? ens.) Beskou u gehooropleiding (dui asb. slegs een antwoord aan) (a) as 'n yak wat hoofsaaklik tot die ondersteuning van gesang-, instrumentale retiese onderrig dien (as hulpvak)? (b) as'n yak met eie doelstellings? Watter? (slegs enkele trefwoorde) 4. HoeveeI onderrigtyd 5. Die onderrigtyd tot my beskikking (a) voldoende (b) onvoldoende 6. waar u onderrig: Het u assistente (a) is weekliks per student . tot u beskikking? . is in die yak gehooropleiding wat hulp aan swakker studente verJeen? Ja (b) vir gehooropleiding en musiekteo- Nee 7. Geskied u gehooronderrig as (a) individuele onderrig? (b) groepsonderrig? 8. Indien u groepsonderrig 9. Verkies u (a) individuele onderrig? (b) groepsonderrig? (c) individuele en groepsonderrig? aangedui het, hoe groot is die groep(e)? 351 : . Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 10. II. Wat is vir u die ideale groepsgrootte? . Watter van die volgende werkwyses sluit u in u gehooronderrig in? (a) Liggaamsbewegings (i) Handtekens (Tonika-Do) (ii) Aanduiding van maatslag (iii) Ander '" (b) Nasing (c) Naklap (d) Naspeel op klawerbordinstrumente (e) Naspeel op ander instrumente (f) Die klop van ritmes van blad (g) Bladsang (h) Diktee (i) Kritiese luister, d.i. die uitwys van verskille tussen die geskrewe partituur word (j) Improvisasie (k) Grafiese voorstel1ings van algemeen maklik waarneembare buitelyne/detail speelde musiekvoorbeelde (I) Yerbale beskrywings van dit wat gehoor is: (i) met musiekteoretiese terminologie (ii) vry ontwikkelde begrippe en beskrywings (bv. m.b.v. assosiasies) (m). Ander: . en dit wat gehoo van voorge- . ........................................................................................................................................................ 12. Watter metode(s) gebruik (a) Absolute solmisasie (b) Tonika-do metode (c) Absolute nootname (d) Sing op lettergrepe (e) Ander metodes: u by die ontwikkeling (gefikseerde do) (relatiewe do) (C, D, Es, Fis, ..) (Ia,la, ..) '" van 'n toonvoorstel1ingsvermoe? ..................................................................................................................................................... Sketse deur die kunstenaar Christoph Matz. 352 . Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 13. Maak u gebruik (a) Ja (b) Nee 14. Indien Ja, watter we r( s): van gepubliseerde handboeke en/of handboeke/werkboeke werkboeke? in u gehooropleiding? (Skrywer/red., titeI, verskyningsjaar en uitge. ................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................................................................................................................................. .....................................•...............................•...•................................................................•... ••.................................................••...........•.......................................................................... ~ . IS. Watter rol speel handboeke/werkboeke in u gehooronderrig? (Dui asb. slegs een antwoord aan.) (a) Ek baseer my onderrig op .die inhoud van handboeke/werkboeke. . (b) Ek gebruik handboeke/werkboeke vir inspirasie en vorm daarmee ten dele my onderrig. 16.. Gebruik u in u gehooronderrig (dui asb. slegs een antwoord aan) (a) slegs musiekliteratuur? (b) slegs selfgekomponeerde oefeninge? (c) hoofsaaklik musiekliteratuur, met 'n paar selfgekomponeerde oefeninge? (d) hoofsaaklik selfgekomponeerde oefeninge, met 'n paar musiekliteratuurvoorbeelde? 17. Vorm "hooranalise" ook 'n deel van u opleidingsprogram? OJ. analise van hele musiekwerke of grotere dele daaruit suiwer op gehoor, sander die gebruik van 'n partituur. (Bv. Die eerste beweging van 'n sonate word analiseer t.O.V. karakter, vorm, harmonie, melodie, stylkenmerke ens. deur slegs herhaaldelik daarna te luister.) (a) Ja (b) Nee 18. Indien u Nee op vraag 17 geantwoord het, wat is u rede(s) daarvoor? (a) Ek vind hooranalise nie prakties uitvoerbaar nie. (b) Dit is vir my 'n nag onbekende terrein. (c) Ander redes: 19. Indien hooranalise deel van u gehoorprogram is, watter stylperiodes (a) Renaissance (b) Barok (c) Klassiek (d) Romantiek (e) Laat-Romantiek (f) Impressionisme (g) Musiek van die Twintigste Eeu tot 1960 (h) Musiek na 1960 (i) Etniese Afrika musiek (j) Jazz (k) Ander 353 . sluit u in? . Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 20. 21. In verband met publiko.sies, kommuniko.sie en navorsing van gehooropleidingsmetodiek: (Oui asb. drie van die volgende stellings ao.n.) (a) Oao.r verskyn voldoende artikels oor die metodiek van gehooropleiding in vaktydskrifte. (b) Ek sou graag meer artikels oor die metodiek van gehooropleiding in vaktydskrifte wou sien. (c) Leerkro.gte in die vak gehooropleiding het voldoende vakgeorienteerde kontak met mekaar. (d) Ek sou .graag meer studiekringe en werkwinkels oor die metodiek van gehooropleiding wou sien. (e) Daar word voldoende oor die metodiek van gehooropleiding nagevors. (f) Daar behoort meer oor die metodiek van gehooropleiding nagevors te word. Maak u gebruik (a) (b) van die rekenaar in u gehooronderrig? Ja Nee Indien Ja, gaan asb. no. bladsy Indien Nee, beantwoord 22. 23. 6, vraag 29. asb. die vrae 22 tot 28. Waarom maak u nie van die rekenaar in u gehooronderrig gebruik nie? (a) My kennis van bestaande gehoorprogramme is onvoldoende. (b) Ek het vakkundig-metodiese besware. (c) Die finansiele belasting te groot. (d) Ander redes: ............................................................. , ,.. ....................................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................................ . . Indien u vraag 22b aangedui het, watter van die volgende vakkundig-metodiese besware is van toepassing? (a) Ek beskou gesintetiseerde klanke as onnatuurlik en onesteties. (b) Enkelelemente soos intervalle en akkoorde word slegs buite 'n musikale konteks geoefen. (c) Rekenaarprogramme is te beperk. (d) Die bykomende tegniese omstandighede soos die regte kabelaansluiting, kombinasies van skakelaars ens, ontmoedig my. (e) Programme is nie verbruikersvriendelik nie. (f) Ander redes . ...................................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................................... 354 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 24. Watter van die volgende rekenaar-program-moontlikhede sou u in u gehooropleiding wou gebruik? Dui ook dit aan wat vir u utopies voorkom. (a) Program-moontlikhede om bladsang m.b.v. die rekenaar te kontroleer vir interval, intonasie en ritmiese foute. (b) Programme waar die onderwyser sy eie musiekvoorbeelde en literatuurvoorbeelde kan programmeer (gebruik). (c) Perfek gemonsterde ("sampled") klanke. (Klanke van tradisionele musiekinstrumente wat deur rekenaarprogramme/sintetiseerders/"samplers" perfek daargestel word.) (d) Programme waarin kort uittreksels van werke voorgespeel word en vrae oor karakter styl, vorm, harmonie ens. gevra word. (e) Die moontlikheid om musiek van plate/laserskywe ens. m.b.v. die rekenaar vir onderrigdoeleindes te verwerk. ("Hyper-Media") (f) Die moontlikheid om 'n partituur m.b.v. 'n leesapparaat op die monitor te projekteer, om dan akkoorde, enkele stempartye, instrumentegroepe ens. te selekteer en te laat klink. (g) Programme met musiekliteratuurvoorbeelde (partituur verskyn op die beeldskerm), waar klinkende stempartye en/of dele van die partituur na willekeur weggelaat kan word. Dit bied die moontlikheid tot bladsang en improvisasie binne 'n musikale konteks. (h) Ander moon tlik hede/ u topie: . .......................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................................ 25. . Gebruik u ander "gehoorprogramme" wat nie rekenaargebonde is nie? (a) Nee (b) Musiekvoorbeelde op magnetiese toonband/kasset(te) vir dikteedoeleindes. (c) Musiekvoorbeelde op magnetiese toonband/kasset(te) met vrae en meerkeusige antwoorde. (d) "Spooktekste": dele van 'n partituur word weggelaat en die student moet na aanleiding van wat hy /sy hoor en afhangende van die opdrag, die ontbrekende materiaal invoeg. (e) Ander. . ...................................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... .............................................................................................................................. 26. Gee ash. 'n kort omskrywing inhoud, aard en doel: van die "gehoorprogram(me)" wat u in vraag 25 aangedui . het m.b.t. : ~ ................................................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................................................. ••••••••••••• P ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ................................................................................................................................................................. 27. Sou u belangstel Ja (b) 28. (a) in 'n werkswinkel oor die aanwending van die rekenaar in gehooropleiding? Nee Watter aspekte word? van Gehooropleiding ontbreek in hierdie vraelys en behoort aangespreek ............................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................................................................................................................................... ........... , .................................................................................................................................................................. . ................................................................................................................................................................. Indien u nie die rekenaar in u gehooronderrig gebruik nie, het u nou die einde van die vraelys bereik. Baie dankie vir u geduld en moeit~! te . 355 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Indien u die rekenaar in gehooronderrig gebruik, voltooi asb. die vraelys vanaf vraag 29. 29. Watter rekenaarprogramme gebruik u? (a) Kommersieel beskikbare programme adres( se) van versp reider( s): (software): '" Naam/Name van programme en . ........................................................................................................................................................ ........................................................................................................................................................ (b) 30. Selfgeprogrammeerde In verband met kommersieel gram( me) gekies? programme beskikbare programme: waarom het u hierdie spesifieke pro. .................................................................................................................................................................. ..................................................................................................................................................................................... .............................................................................................................................................................................. .......................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................... 31. Indien u "selfgeprogrammeerde programme" in vraag 29 aangedui het, wat is u redes vir die ontwerp van 'n eie program? (a) Programmering is 'n interessante veld en ek wou eie idees ontwikkel. (b) Ek is ontevrede met kommersieel beskikbare programme. (c) My program bied ander moontlikhede as die kommersieel beskikbare programme. Watter? . ................................................................................................................................................................. ......................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................... (d) Ander redes: . ............................................................................................................................................................. .......................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................. ~. . 32. Sou u bereid wees om u selfgeprogrammeerde program vir navorsingsdoeleindes beskikbaar te stel? Vanselfsprekend word gewaarborg dat die program nie sonder u toestemming gekopieer of gesirkuleer sal wqrd nie. Indien u sou instem: wat is u adres? (a) Ja : : . .......................................................................................................................................................... (b) 33. 34. Nee Watter rekenaar gebruik u: (a) IBM/IBM aanpasbaar (b) Apple Macintosh (c) Atari (d) A nde r . Watter sintetiseerder/"keyboard"/"sampler" (indien enige) gebruik asb. die volledige naam, by. Roland 070: u saam met u rekenaar? ............................................................................................................................................................................. 356 Gee . Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 35. Watter van die onderstaande steIlings is van toepassing op u onderrigsituasie? (a) Die rekenaar word slegs as "oefeninstrument" gebruik, buite die onderrigsituasie, van huiswerkopdragte. (b) Die rekenaar word slegs as deel van my onderrig aangewend. (c) Die rekenaar word as dee I van my onderrig en as oefeninstrument aangewend. 36. Watter studente gebruik die rekenaar? (a) slegs onderpresteerders (b) slegs goeie presteerders (c) aIle studente 37. Vind u dat u studente se gehoorprestasie merkbaar verbeter het sedert u die rekenaar hooronderrig gebruik? (a) Ja (b) Nee (c) Ek gebruik die rekenaar nog nie lank genoeg nie, en kan dus nie kommentaar vraag lewer nie. as deel 38. Indien (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (1) (m ) u Ja op vraag 37 geantwoord het, watter aspekte het verbeter? Ritmiese vaardighede Intervalbewussyn Harmonies-funksionele gehoor Klankkleur Diktee Bladsang Hooranalise Partituurlees Stylherkenning Verstaan van musikale strukture Intonasie Geheue Ander 357 in u ge- op hierdie . Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 39. Waner van die volgende rekenaar-program-moontlikhede sou u in u gehooropleiding wou gebruik? Dui ook dit aan wat vir u utopies voorkom. (a) Program-moontlikhede om bladsang m.b. v. die rekenaar te kontroleer vir interval, intonasie en ritmiese foute. (b) Programme waar die onderwyser sy eie musiekvoorbeelde en literatuurvoorbeelde kan programmeer (gebruik). (c) Perfek gemonsterde ("sampled") klanke. (Klanke van tradisionele musiekinstrumente wat deur rekenaarprogramme/sintetiseerders/"samplers" perfek daargestel word.) (d) Programme waarin kort uittreksels van werke voorgespeel word en vrae oor karakter styl, vorm, harmonie ens. gevra word. (e) Die moontlikheiq om musiek van plate/laserskywe ens. m.b.v. die rekenaar vir onderrigdoeleindes te verwerk. ("Hyper-Media") (f) Die moontlikheid om 'n partituur m.b. v. 'n leesapparaat op die monitor te projekteer, om dan akkoorde, enkele stempartye, instrumentegroepe ens. te selekteer en te laat klink. (g) Programme met musiekliteratuurvoorbeelde (partituur verskyn op die beeldskerm), waar klinkende stempartye en/of dele van die partituur na willekeur weggelaat kan word. Dit bied die moontlikheid tot bladsang en improvisasie binne 'n musikale konteks. (h) A nder moon tlikhede/ utopie: ............................•.......................................................................... ................................................. ~ . ................................................................................................................................ ...................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................ ' 40. Gebruik u ander "gehoorprogramme" wat nie rekenaargebonde is nie? (a) Nee (6) Musiekvoorbeelde op magnetiese toonband/kasset(te) vir dikteedoeleindes. (c) Musiekvoorbeelde op magnetiese toonband/kasset(te) met vrae en meerkeusige antwoorde. (d) "Spooktekste": dele van 'n partituur word weggelaat en die student moet na aanleiding wat hy/sy hoor en afhangende van die opdrag, die ontbrekende materiaal invoeg. (e) Ander: .......................................................................•.............................................. _.._.._ . . van . ......................................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 41. Gee asb. 'n kort omskrywing van die "gehoorprogram(me)" wat uin vraag 40 aangedui het m.b.t. inho ud, aard en doel: : _ . ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................. .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 358 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 42. Sou u belangstel (a) (b) 43. in 'n werkswinkel oor die aanwending van die rekenaar in gehooropleiding? Ja Nee Watter aspekte van Gehooropleiding ontbreek in hierdie vraelys en behoort aangespreek te wo rd? ......................................................................................................................................................• . . ................................................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................................................................................................................................... U het nou die einde van hierdie vraelys bereik. Baie dankie vir u geduld en moeite! 359 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za APPENDIX I Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Tel.: (0711) 62 84 63 Hasenbergsteige 37 7000 Stuttgart }. Februar 1991 Sehr geehrte Damen und Herren, ich bin Doktorandin an der UniversiHit von Stellenbosch (SUdafrika) und befasse mich mit dem Fach GehOrbildung. Mein Doktorvater ist Dr. Paul Loeb van Zuilenburg. Ein DAAD-Stipendium hat es mir ermoglicht, Musikhochschulen zu untersuchen. Methoden der GehOrbildung an deutschen Der angeschlossene Fragebogen ist Teil einer umfassenderen Arbeit, die neben traditioneller GehOrbildung auch Untersuchungen zu Computerverwendung, Horanalyse und Musikpsychologie einbezieht. Daraus sollen Grundlagen fUr neue Methoden der GehOrbildung entwickelt werden. Ich wUrde mich sehr freuen, wenn Sie mich durch die Beantwortung der Fragen bei meiner Forschungsarbeit unterstUtzen wUrden. Darf ich Sie bitten, den Fragebogen moglichst bis Ende Mai 1991 zurUckzuschicken? Yielen Dank. Mit freundlichen GrU13en Ihre Ami Herbst Anlagen 362 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za FORSCHUNGSPROJEKT 1991: FRAGEN ZUR GEHORBILDUI'JG 363 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Empfehlungen zum Ausfullen des Fragebogens I. Es ist ratsam, sich zunachst einen Oberblick Uber die Fragen zu verschaffen. daB die Logik der Fragenfolge Sie zuverlaBig leitet. 2. Je nach Frage entscheiden Sie, ob Sie mehrere Antworten ankreuzen. Wenn Ihnen die vorgegebenen Antworten nicht zureichend erscheinen, erHiutern Sie "dies bitte auf einem gesonderten Blatt (bitte mit genauer Angabe, zu welcher Frage dies gehOrt:) Dies gilt auch, wenn der vorgesehene Platz fUr Antworten nicht aus-reicht. 3. Selbstverstandlich lich behandelt. werden die Antworten keinerlei Bewertungen Vielen Dank fur Ihre Teilnahme! 364 unterzogen Sie werden sehen, und streng vertrau- Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Fragen I. Name der Hochschule. 2. An lhrer Hochschule wird Gehorbildung angeboten (a) ais eigensttindiges Fach? (b) innerhalb des musiktheoretischen Unterrichts? (c) innerhalb von (z.B. rhythmischer Erziehung oder Tanzausbiidung, 3. an der Sie unterrichten: . Sehen Sie Gehorbiidung ais (bitte nur eine Antwort ankreuzen) (a) ein Fach, das im wesentlichen zui" Unterstutzung der Gesangs- und Instrumentaiausbildung und des musiktheoretischen Unterricht dient? (ais HiIfsfach) (b) ein Fach mit eigensttindigen Erkenntnisformen? Welche? (Stichworten) 4. Wieviel Unterrichtszeit steht Ihnen wochentlich 5. Die mir zur Verfugung (a) ausreichend (b) nicht ausreichend stehende 6. Gibt es bei Ihnen im Fach Gehorbiidung ten? (a) 8. 9. pro Student Unterrichtszeit . zur Verfugung': . ist Tutoren, die Stutzkurse . fur schwachere Studenten anbie- Ja (b) 7. ? usw.) Nein Erfolgt Ihr GehOrbiidungsunterricht (a) EinzeIunterricht? (b) Gruppenunterricht? , Bei Gruppenunterricht: ais Wieviele Teilnehmer pro Gruppe? Welche Unterrichtsform ue\'orzugen Sie? (a) Einzelunterricht (b) Gruppenunterricht (c) Ich unterrichte in beiden Formen gleich gem. 365 . Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 10. II. Welche Teilnehmerzahl isr fur Sie ideal? . W.;lche der folgenden Arbeirsformen verwenden Korperbewegungen (i) Handzeichen (Tonib-Do) (ii) Taktschlagen Sie in lhrem Gehdrunterrichr? (:1) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (I) (In) (i ii) Andere Nachsingen Nachklopfen Nachspielen auf Tasteninstrumenten Nachspielen auf anderen Instrumenten Rhythmen vom Blatt klopfen Vom-Blarr-Singen Diktate . Fehlerhoren, d.h. Nachweis von Unterschieden Improvisation Graphische Darstellungen von musikalischen Verbale Beschreibungen von Horbeispielen: (i) mit musiktheoretischer Terminologie (ii) mit frei erfundenen Begriffen .-'\ ndere: zwischen Notentext VerHiufenjDetaiIs und Gehortem von Horbeispielen . ........................................................................................................................................................... 12. WeIche i'v'lethode(n) verwenden Sie zur Entwicklung Absolute Solmisation ("fixed" do) (b) Tonika-do-Methode (mit relativem do) (c) Absolute Tonnamen (C, 0, Es, Fis, ..) (d) Singesilben (la,la, ..) des Tonvorstellungsvermogens? (a) (e) Andere Methoden: . ....................................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................................... Die Zeichnungen wurden mir dankenswertecweise von Christoph Matz zur Vecftigung gestellt. 366 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 13. 14. Verwenden Sie im Druck erschienene (a) Ja (b) Nein \Venn Ja, welche? (Autor/Herausgeber, Gehorbildungslehrbucher Titel, Erscheinungsjahr /Ubungssammlungen? und Verlag): . ................................................................................................................................................................. .................................................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................................................. .............................................. " "." "" " . " 15. Welche Rolle spielen Lehrbucher/Obungsammlungen in Ihrem Unterricht? (Sitte nur eine AI1[wort ankreuzen.) (a) Grundlage meines Unterrichts sind Lehrbucher/Obungssammlungen. (b) Ich verwende Lehrbucher/Ubungssammlungen als Anregung. Sie sind Teil meiner Unterrichtsgestaltung. 16. Verwenden Sie im Gehorunterricht (bitte nur eine Antwort ankreuzen) (a) nur Literaturbeispiele? (b). nur selbstkomponierte Obungsbeispiele? (c) hauptsachlich Literaturbeispiele, mit einigen selbstkomponierten Ubungsbeispielen? (d) hauptsachlich selbstkomponierte Obungsbeispiele, mit einigen Literaturbeispielen'J ~ 17. Gehort zu Ihrem Unterrichtsprogramm grof3erer Teile nur uber das Horen? auch Horanalyse, (a) 18. 19. Nein \Venn (a) (b) (c) Nein, was sind Ihre Grunde dafur? Ich halte Horanalyse fur nicht praktikabel. Es ist fur mich ein noch unbekanntes Feld. Andere G ru nde: ganzer Stucke oder Ja (b) d.h. die Analyse : Welche Stilperioden verwenden Sie im Fall von Horanalyse? (a) Renaissance (b) Barock (c) Klassik (d) Romantik (e) Spat-Romantik (f) Impressionism us (g) Musik des 20. Jahrhunderts bis 1960 (h) Musik nach 1960 (i) Ethnisch'e afrikanische Musik (j) Jazz (k) Andere Mus ik: 367 . . Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 20. 21. Zur Publikation, Fortbildung und Forschung der Geh6rbildungsmethodik: (Bine drei Antworren ankreuzen.) (n) Es gibt genu~end Artikel zur Geh6rbildungsmethodik in Fachzeitschriften. (b) Ich wunsche mi, mehr Artikel zur Geh6rbildungsmethodik in Fachzeitschriften. (c) Es gibt genugend Fachtreffen fur Lehrkrtifte de, GehOrbildung. (d) Ich wunsche mi, mehr Workshops/Fachtreffen und Arbeitskreise zur Gehorbildungsmethodik. (e) Zur Methodik de, Gehorbildung Wi,d genugend Forschung getrieben. (f) Es sollte mehr uber die Methodik de, Gehorbildung geforscht werden. Verwenden (n) (b) Sie Computer in Ihrem Gehorunterricht? Ja Nein We.nn Ja, bitte weiter auf Seite 6 Frage 29. Wenn Nein, bitte Fragen 22 bis 28 beantworten. 22. Warum machen Sie im Geh6runterricht keinen Gebrauch von Computern? (a) Ich kenne die verfugbaren Gehorprogramme (Software) nicht. (b) Ich habe fachlich-methodische Bedenken. (c) Die finanzielle Belnstung ist zu groG. (d) Andere Griinde . ......................................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................................................... 23. Zu 22b: Welche de, folgenden fachlich-methodischen Griinde treffen zu? (a) Ich finde die synthetischen KHinge unnatiirliCh und unasthetisch. .. (b) Einzelelemente wie Intervalle und Akkorde werden nur ausserhalb des muslkalIschen textes ge-ubt. (c) Computerprogramme sind zu eingeschrankt. (d) Mich sto,en die technischen Begleitumstande, (e) Die Programme sind nicht benutzerfreundlich. (f) Andere G riinde: ...................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................................................... , .................................................. Kon- . . ~ ...................................................•........................................................................ ............................................................................................... 368 ' . Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 24. Welche Eigenschaften von Computerprogrammen zur Gehorbildung erscheinen Ihnen wunschenswert fur Gehorbildung? Markieren Sie auch Eigenschaften, die Ihnen utopisch erscheinen. (a) Programme, die beim Vom-Blatt-Singen Intervall- und Intonationsfehler und falsche Rhythmen an-geben. (b) Programme, in die der Lehrer eigene Beispiele und Literaturbeispiele einfugen kann. (c) Perfekt gesampelte Klange (d.h. Klange, die in ComputerprogrammenjSynthesizernjSamplern verwendet werden, die traditionellen Musikinstrumenten perfekt entspreehen.) (d) Programme, die kurze Literaturbeispiele vorspielen und naeh Charakter, Stil, Ganung, Form, Harmonik usw. fragen. (e) Die Mogliehkeit, Musik von Tontragern (SehallplattejCD usw.) dureh den Computer fur den Unterrieht zu verarbeiten. (Hyper-Media) (f) Die Mogliehkeit, mit Hilfe eines Lesegerats eine Partitur auf den Bildschirm zu projizieren, urn dann Akkorde, einzelne Stimmen, Instrumentengruppen usw. auswtihlen und erklingen lassen zu konnen. (g) Programme mit Literaturbeispielen (Partitur erseheint auf dem Bildschirm), bei denen sowohl klingende Stimmen, als aueh Stimmen im Notentext weggelassen werden konnen. (Moglichkeit. im Kontext vom Blatt zu singen, zu improvisieren, usw.) (h) Andere Mogliehkei ten, aueh utop isehe: . ......................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................... , ........................................................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................................................. Verwenden Sie andere "Gehorprogramme" (nieht computergebuhden)? (a) Nein (b) Musikbeispiele auf TonbandjKassetten fur Diktate. (c) Musikbeispiele auf TonbandjKassetten, die nach dem multiple-ehoieeVerfahren tFragen mit aus-wahlbaren Antworten) bearbeitet werden. (d) "Liiekentexte": d.h. Notentexte, in denen einzelne Akkorde, Tone, Stimmen fehlen und nach Gehor auf versehiedene Weise erganzt werden konnen. (e) Andere . ......................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 26. Beschreiben Sie in Stichworten Ihr(e) "Programm(e)" . von Frage 25 naeh Inhalt, Art und Ziel: ....................................................................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................................................................. ........................................................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................................................ .................................................................................................................................................................... 27. Sind Sie an einem Workshop zur Verwendung (a) (b) 28. des Computers-im Gehorunterricht interessiert? Ja Nein Welche Aspekte des GehOrbildungsunterriehts wo rden? sind in diesem Fragebogen nicht angesproehen : . .................................................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................................................................................................................................. ............................................................................................................................................................................. ..................................................................................... ~ Wenn Sie den Computer nicht im Gehorunterricht verwende~, sind sie jetzt am Ende dieses Fragebogens. Vlelen Dank fur Ihre Geduld und Muhe! . 369 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Wenn Sie Computer in Ihrem GehOrunterricht verwenden, ergiinzen Sie bitte den Fragenbogen ab Frage 29. 29. Welche Computerprogramme (a) 1m Handel erhaltliche (b) 30. Selbstprogrammierte Zu im Handel erhiiltlicher ge wahl t? (Software) verwenden Sie? Software: Sitte geben Sie Name und Anschrift der Vertriebstelle an: Programme Software: aus welchen Grunden •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• haben Sie diese(s) Programm(e) aus. 1•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 32. Zu 29b: Aus welchen GrUnden haben Sie ein eigenes Programm entwickelt? (a) Programmierung ist fUr !Uich ein interessantes Feld und ich wollte eigene [deen ausprobieren. (b) Ich bin mit den im Handel erhaltlichen Software unzufrieden. (c) Mein Programm bietet andere Mog[ichkeiten als die im Handel erhiiltliche Software. WeIehe? . (d) 31. . Waren Sie bereit, Ihr selbstentwickeltes Programm fUr Forsehungszweeke zur Verfiigung zu stellen? Selbstverstandlieh ist gewahrleistet, daB das Copyright erhalten bleibt und das Programm ohne Ihre Einwilligung weder kopiert noeh weitergegeben wurde. Falls Sie zustimmen: wie lautet Ihre Ansehrift? (a) Ja . (b) 33. Andere G rUnde: Nein Welehen Computer benutzen Sie? (a) IBMjIBM-kompatibel (b) Apple Macintosh (c) Atari (d) Ande re: . 370' Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 34. Welche KeyboardjSyntheziser/Sampler benutzen Sie im Zusammenhang geben Sie den Namen vollstindig an, z.8. Roland 070: ............. 35. ............. .... . . . ..• ...~. . .. . . " mit Computern? . . , Zum Einsatz des Computers in Ihrem Unterricht: Der Computer wird lediglich aul3erhalb des Unterriehts als Obungsinstrument aufgaben verwendet. Oer Computer wird nur im Unterrieht verwendet. (b) Der Computer wird im Unterrieht und zum Oben benutzt. (e) (a) 36. 37. fl'lr Haus- Welehe Studenten benutzen den Computer (a) nur sehwachere Studenten (b) nur "gute" Studenten (c) alle Studenten Haben sieh die Leistungen Ihrer Studenten (a) seit 8enutzung des Computers deutlich verbessert? Ja (b) (c) 38. 8ine Nein Noeh keine Aussage moglich Wenn]a: in welcher Hinsicht? (a) Rhythmisehe Fiihigkeiten (b) Intervallbewul3tsein (e) Harmoniseh-funktionales Horen (d) Klangfarbenhoren (e) Diktate (f) Vom-8Iarr-Singen (g) Horanalyse (h) Partiturlesen (i) Stilerkennung (j) Verstehen musikalischer Strukturen (k) Intonation (I) Gedaehtnis (m) Andere . 371 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 39. Welehe Eigensehaften von Computerprogrammt: zur Gehorbildung erseheinen Ihnen wiln. schenswert fUr Geh6rbildung? Markieren Sie auch Eigenschaften die Ihnen utopisch erscheinen. (a) Programme, die beim Vom-Blatt-Singen Intervall- und Intonationsfehler und falsche Rhyth men an-geben. (b) Programme, in die der Lehrer eigene Beispiele und Literaturbeispiele einfugen kann. (el Perfekt gesampelte Kljnge (d.h. Kljnge, die in Computerprogramm~n/Synthesizern/Samplern verwendet werden, die traditionellen Musikinstrumenten perfekt entsprechen.) (d) Programme, die kurze Literaturbeispiele vorspielen und nach Charakter, Stil, Gattung, Form, Harmonik usw. fragen. (e) Die M6glichkeit, Musik von Tontragern (Schallplatte/CD usw.) durch den Computer 'fur den Unterricht zu verarbeiten. (Hyper-Media) (f) Die Moglichkeit, mit Hilfe eines Lesegerats eine Partitur auf den Bildschirm zu projizieren,; urn dann Akkorde, einzelne Stimmen, Instrumentengruppen usw. auswahlen und erklingen lassen zu k6nnen. (g) Programme.mit Literaturbeispielen (Partitur erscheint auf dem Bildschirm), bei denen sowohl klingende Stimmen, als auch Stimmen im Notentext weggelassen werden k6nnen. (Moglichkeit, im Kontext vom Blatt zu singen, zu improvisieren, usw.) (h) A nde re M6glich kei ten, auch utopische: . 40. Verwenden Sie :lIldere "Gehorprogramm~' (nicht eomputergebunden)? (a) Nein (b) Musikbeispiele auf Tonband/Kassetten fur Diktate. (e) Musikbeispiele auf Tonband/Kassetten, die nach dem multiple-ehoieeVerfahren (Fragen mit auswahlbaren Antworten) bearbeitet werden. (d) "Luekentexte": d.h. Notentexte, in denen einzelne Akkorde, Tone, Stimmen fehlen und naeh Geh6r auf versehiedene Weise erganzt werden k6nnen. (e) Andere . 41. Beschreiben Sie in Stiehworten Ihr(e) "Programm(e)" .. 372 von Frage 40 naeh Inhalt, Art und Ziel: Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za ~2. Sind Sie an einem Worksho~ wr Verwendung 1a (b) Nein des Computers im Gehorunterrichr Welche Aspekte des Gehorbildungsunterrichts wo rden? sind in diesem Fragebogen inreressien? (:1) 43. nicht angesprochen . ...................................................................................................................................................................... .................................................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................................................................... Sie sind jetzt am Ende dieses Fragebogens. fOr Ihre Zeit und MOhe! 373 Vielen Dank Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za APPENDIXJ Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za EXAMPLES OF ENTRANCE REQumEMENTS FOR AURAL TRAINING AND FINAL EXAMINATIONS IN AURAL TRAININGl THE REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA A. The University of Stellenbosch Example of the final examination2 1. Example of the written part of the final Aural examination 1.1 One-part dictation ~ OO==::::.-----'o~"---I_====:j -_ ~~-_. ~t.:=::========~========~++jl5b-=========:.j 1.2 Two-part dictation ~l==:l------.'----CJt:=::t::::=:== .~:::=:=:===::&::.. =====--==-===4 L--d 1.3 Four-part dictation • I J I 2 J I . I .a.. : 1 r ~ I, -r The examples are only a sample of what was required at a few music institutions in the three countries and do not claim to be representative of all requirements. At some Musikhochschulen different tests and examinations were administered according to the students' main subject. All the different areas in which a student can specialize were not covered in this Appendix. In some cases full details of all the requirements could not be found and only the fmal requirements for Sight Singing were, for example, included. Apart from other entrance requirements, no additional Aural Training entrance test was required for registering as a music student at the University of Stellenbosch. 37~ Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 1.4 Atonal one-part dictations : 1.5 Chord recognition 1.6 Broken chord dictation 377 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 2. Example of the oral part of the final Aural examination 2.1 Sight Singing using Tonic doh syllables I ...•.. I .~ • ? 1=====-1 { .•.lfit LfT ~ -- J~====. 2.2 Sight Singing on absolute note names 2.3" Declamation (intoning) of a rhythmic phrase 2.4 ========== Sight singing exercise based on chords, singing on absolute note names , J .... ..•.. b. 2.5 , - ,....--, . ..•.. I -.. I - ~ iT • -:i:- Keyboard harmony: Playa cadence in which a French sixth is included 378 • ...•. Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY A: Hoehsehule der Kiinste Berlin Example of entrance test for prospective school music teachers (SM)3 1. You are going to hear 10 harmonic intervals; Indicate the type of each interval. (M = major, m = minor, Trit = augmented 4th, 2 = second, 3 third ... ) m.2 M.2 m.3 M.3 4 Trit. 5 m.6 M.6 m.7 M.7 8 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 10 10 2. (a) You are going to hear 5 triads; Indicate the type of each triad. (b) You are going to hear 5 major and minor triads; Indicate the position of each triad, i.e. inversion. 11 12 13 (a) Maj. Min. Dim. Aug. (b) Root First Second 14 1 1 2 2. 3 3 17 4 4 18 5 5 19 3. "15 16 You are going to hear 5 dominant 1eventh chords; Indicate all the inversions. Root First Second 20 Third 1 21 2 22 3 23 4 24 5 25 Sub Total 3 The entrance test for prospective examples are easier. instrumental .1 .. teachers (ML) requires the same aural skills, but the music 379 _ Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Transferred 4. Sub Total You are going to hear an accompanied melody of which the rhythm has been given below; Add the pitches. 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 27 26 5. 28 29 30 31 32 33 33 You are going to hear a musical phrase consisting of eight measures; Indicate the harmonic function that applies for each measure. M = Measure. 34 35 M.1 M.2 M.3 M.4 M.5 M.6 M.7 M.8 36 DD(V/V) 37 D(V) 38 T (I) 39 S (IV) 40 34 6. 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 41 You are going to hear an accompanied melody of which the pitches are given below; Add the rhythms. ,,• « • , • « • ,• ..•.. ...-, I •• ~ • • i • ,, .~ 42 .!. 43 44 45 46 47 l 42 43 44 45 46 ] 48 47 48 49 49 SubTotal 380 0 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Transferred sub total 7. D You are going to hear a short two-part excerpt; notate the upper and lower voices. 50 I 51 53 50 51 52 53 1========== 54 8. 55 56 55 56 57 57 You are going to hear a foup-part choral-style phrase ("Kantionalsatz"); Name the triads with a capital letter for major and a sma1lletter for minor. The initial key is given. 58 59 60 61 a 62 I I I I 63 64 58 65 66 59 I 67 60 I 68 61 I 69 62 I 70 63 I 71 64 I 65 66 67 72 68 69 70 71 72 Total 381 0 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Answers of questions One to Eight Question one ,~ ~O 8 1 Ig: I~ ;~ ~(jJ ~8 W ~;~hs Question two Qb) "j(a.J ..., ~u " y~ TI '1"'" ,... I Question three Question four: Excerpt from Sketches Op. 9b (Ill) by Bela Bart6k: Lento 314 ,....-3~ J. 62~8 .'1 r-3~ ~3~ r-j__ 3 - 382 I p~ q'o l~ Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Question five: Excerpt from Sonatina in C major, Adagio by Ludwig van Beethoven: 3__ AdagAi~o::. A"- .•. 1l-- .::: __ .. ':"'-' ..:. 4 t 8 ---'---.. --- __ --:!t.-- .•. 9 3 -Question six: Excerpt from the Sonata in D major Hoboken XVI/42 by Joseph Haydn: Andante con espressione ~ ~ Hoboken XVI :42 rt3f: 3::---.., p fi 383 2 3 fi Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Question seven: Excerpt from the French Suite II (Menuet) by Johann Sebastian Bach: Moderato COligrazia J.ll' 5 .j 9 I 2 5 p 5 Question eight: Based upon an excerpt of the choral-style part ("Kantionalsatz") Frederic Chopin: a (d) (d) (a) (g) (g) (C) (C) (d) (F) (C) (d) (F) (E) in the Trois Nocturnes Op. 15/3 by (C) (a) I ~ • ~ -e- . :et I J ...•• . I I I I I I ~ I 'I • I I I , ~ I I 0 ~ I .... ...•.. 384 ~ Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za B: Staatliehe Hoehsehule fUr Musik und Darstellende Kunst Stuttgart 1. Entrance test in Aural Training for all prospective students 1.1 Notate the following six tones that are played in the key of D major. The precise octave in which the tones appear will not be evaluated: 1.2 Notate the following three interval groups that are played: 1.3 Name the six intervals, e.g. major third.(Each interval is played harmonically.) (a) ....•..•.....•.•.............. (c) (e) .....................•..•..... 1.4 (b) (d) (t) . . . . Eight chords are played, Name the type and inversion of each chord. The following types appear: Major Minor Augmented Dominant seventh Diminished (M) (m) (Aug.) (D7) (Dim.) You may use the symbols that you are familiar with, or use the following: Maj. Maj. 35 Maj. Min. Min. Min. Aug. D7 35 D7 D7 357 D DVor No indication of the inversions of the augmented and diminished chords (a) (e) . . (b) (t)...................•... . ;5 (c) (g) ..••......••••..••....• necessary. . (d) (h) •..............•....... Chords played: o I I I I I I -,+- ,.. ~ I I I .I J J pA- .•.. • I 385 I l, .. b. . I . Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 1.5 Cadence hearing: Two pauses will be made in a piece of music (e.g. a Schubert Watz). Indicate in each case the function of the last chord where the piece was interrupted. Only T, S, D, (1, IV, V) appear. 1.6 Dictation 2. Elementarytheorytest All Aural Training students have to take a test in elementary theory apart from the other more difficult written theory test. 2.1 Write the following notes: (a) E sharp/II (b) contra B flat 2.2 Write the required intervals downwards: Min. 7th 2.3 Aug. 4th Maj. 6th Perf. 4th Name the following intervals: (a) , (b) b. I iJ==J W 386 x~ Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 2.4 Write the required steps in the minor keys indicated by the key signatures: ~ J Harm. min. 2.5 2.6 2 7 • IE Mel. Min. 6 Mel. min. 7 3 (a) Wh~t is the relative major key of b flat minor? (b) Name the Subdominant chord in f minor. . (In note names) (a) Write the first inversion of a f sharp minor triad: (b) Write a diminished triad on a 3harp/: (c) Name 1.) the chord type and 2.) the inversion of the given chord 1.) ........•........ 2.) 387 . ~ 6 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 3. Requirements for the final Aural Examination The requirements for the various final examinations in Aural Training were published in the following small booklet. This was not translated into English because examples of the examinations appear in sections four to seven. STAATLICHE 1I0CIISCHULE FUR MUSIK UNO OARSTELLENOE KUNST STUTTGART Die AbschluBprufung in Gehorbildung 388 sind diese Beispiele nie. stungen sind auf S. 8 zusammengefaBt. Oktober 1985 Hubert Haas 1m Folgenden wird fUr jeden PrUfungsteil aufgefUhrt. wie die PrUfungsbeispiele ausgewlhlt sind und in welcher Weise sie diktiert werden. Hinweise Uber die Intention jedes PrUfungsteils schlieBen sich an. Die Tabellen zur Bewertung der Lei- w~rden. AIle Bildungs- und PrUfungsmethoden des Geh6rs sind Arten von Information Uber Klangvorstellungen, und der Wert dieser Methoden kann nur von dieser Definition her zutreffend beurteilt Tltigkeit Keine PrUfung kann den Erkenntnisstand des BewuBtseins direkt messen. Man braucht das nachgespielte Thema, die schriftlich oder verbal aufgezlhlten Begriffe. die gesungenen oder notierten Beispiele, urn aus deren optischer oder akustischer Wahrnehmung zu erschlieBen, ob der Proband weiB, '~as das ist". das in seinem Inneren klingt. Das eigentliche Ziel geh6rbildnerischer Zur Qualifikation eines Berufsmusikers geh6rt unter anderen Flhigkeiten auch die. Strukturen geh6rter und selbst produzierter Musik zu erkennen. zu benennen und mit Ihnen umzugehen. Wer sich auf die AbschluBprUfung in Geh6rbildung vorbereitet, sollte wissen, welchen Sinn fUr seine Qualifikation als Berufsmusiker die in diesem Fach geforderten Leistungen haben. Die vorliegende Zusammenstellung m6chte darUber informieren. Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 8 w Nachschrift: Nachschrift: ist jedoch in sich als je ein'Fehler 2 Das Ergebnis weist nacho wieweit ein Bewerber die linearen und harmonischen formalen Strukturen des Be~spiels wahrnehmen und deuten kann. Steht eine Phase in einer falschen Tonart, richtig, so wird deren Eingang und Ausgang gerechnet. Instrumentalmusik. ungeflhr 16 Takte. des 17. ~nd 18. Jhdts. Vorgegeben werden Tonart undTaktart. Das stUck erklingt in musikalisch angemessenem Tempo und wird dann in Abschnitten wiederholt. Zum SchluB erklingt das ganze Beispiel noch zweimal. Wiederholungsfehler werden - sofern es sich um,identische Tonh6hen handelt, beim ersten Auftreten ganz, in den folgenden Fillen nur 'halb berechnet. 2.) Zweistimmige Das Ergebnis weist nach. wieweit der Bewerber die melodischen und formalen Strukturen des Beispiels. wie Sequenzen oder latente Melodik. wahrnehmen kann. Spontane Wahrnehmung der Intervalle und deren rasche Obertragung in das Tonsystem sind dazu Voraussetzung. Tonal nicht gebundene Melodien des 20. Jhdts. Das Beispiel erklingt in musikalisch angemessenem Tempo und wird dann in 'Abschnitten wiederholt. Zum SchluB erklingt das ganze Beispiel noch zweimal. Als Fehler zl~len falsche Intervalle und falsche Dauern. Weniger streng k6nnen falsche Intervalle gewertet werden. die nach einem vorausgehenden Fehler wieder zur richtigen Tonh6he zurUckfUhren. Dasselbe gilt fUr die analoge Wiederholung falscher Dauern. 1.) Einstimmige I. SCIIRIFTLICIIE PROFUNG oder Ausweichung. Das StUck erklingt zweimal gespielt, dann wieder zwei- Satz mit Modulation h6ren: SM, KM und ML mit oder Ausweichung zusltzl. 3 Der Satz liegt dem Bewerber in Noten vor. Er wird zweimal abschnittweise mit Verllnderungen gespielt. Danach erklingt das verllnderte Beispiel nochmal ganz. Der Bewerber trlgt die Verlnderungen in seine Vorlage ein. Nur fUr Bewerber aus den Abteilungen HF Musiktheorie und Geh6rbildung. Ein vierstimmiger b) Verlnderungen FUr diese drei Diktate steht eine Stunde zur Vel'fUgung. Den Bewerbern aus den Abteilungen SM. ,KM und ML mit zusltzl. llF Musiktheorie/Geh6rbildung werden Beispiele mit erh6hten Anforderungen vorgelegt. Das Ergebnls weist nach. wieweit ein Bewerber gllngige harmonische Verllufe durchh6ren und wiedergeben kann. Dabei ergllnzen und bestlltigen sich intervallisches, tonal lineares und harmonisches H6ren. Wir verlangen die Nachschrift der AuBenstimmen zusammen mit der GeneralbaBbezifferung. Der harmonische Verlauf muB durch BaB und Bezifferung eindeutig definiert seine Bewegungen. die harmonisch undefinierbare Zusammenkllnge herbeifUhren. k6nnen ohne Bezifferung bleiben. Ein vierstimmiger Satz mit Modulation Vorgegeben werden Tonart und Taktart. ganz. Dann wird jeder Stollen zweimal mal das Ganze. a) Nachschrift: 3.) Vierstimmig Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za der Noten Verreehnung Ergebnis PrOfung wird' weder 3 1.) + 2.) zur VerfOgung. 3.) • Endnote der sehriftliehen PrOfung. (I) 3a); 3b). 3.)' lS Minuten auf- noeh abgerundet. + Bewerber: stehen b) I n t e Bewerber die T6ne bar naeh 4 r val Ie. tonal nieht gebunden aus den Abteilungen KA. ML, OR und KMB benennen einer festgelegten Intervallfolge jeweils unmitteldem Ansehlag. 1.) Einzel t6ne a) Stu fen einer Molltonart mit 2 - 4 Vorzeiehen - Die Tonart wird gegeben. - Naeh jedem falseh benannten Ton ~ird die Tonart neu gegeben. - Die T6ne sind verteilt zwischen Kontra G und c"'. - Jeder Ton wird nur einmal gegeben. - Die Tane sind mit Tonnamen zu benennen. II. MOndliehe Dieses FOr aIle Bewerber: FOr die obengenannten PrOfungsteil FOr diesen Das Ergebnis weist naeh. ob die Klangvorstellung. die der Bewerber mit dem Sehriftbild verbindet. so klar ist. daB eine Diskrepanz zum gerade geh6rten Klang bewuBt wird. 1st die Eintragung harmoniseh,falseh. so wird eine Viertelnote abgezogen. fehlt die Eintragung ganz. eine halbe Note. Steht eine Eintragung an einer gar nieht verlnderten Stelle. so werden drei Viertel abgezogen. singen: mit Chromatik und Modulation fUr ML. OR, im Tonsystem Zeit. um sieh der Anfangston zu orientieren angesehlagen. und das Tempo S Das Ergebnis weist naeh, wieweit ein einstimmiger Notentext beim Bewerber eine Klangvorstellung hervorruft und ob diese so klar ist. daB die Einzelt6ne zu einer musikalisehen Gestalt werden. Aueh darf als Grundflhigkeit eines musikalisehen Faehmanns angesehen werden. daB er singend eine Klangvorstellung zitieren kann. Rhy'thmisehe Verlnderungen werden als Fehler gezllhlt, ohne daB der PrOfer eingreift. falsehe Tonh6hcn jedoeh werden sofort am Klavler berlehtigt. Bei extrem langs~mem Tempo muB bis zu einer Note abgezogen werden. De~ Bewerber bekommt zu wlhlen. Dann wird KA. KMB. b) Ein Beispiel mit tonal nieht gebundenen Teileri fOr SM, KMA, ML mit zusltzl. HF Musiktheorie und Geh6rbildung (ZIIMG). c) Bewerber mit Hauptfaeh Gesang (ML) k6nnen zwei Beispiele (a) und (b) yom Blatt singen und bekommen dafur zum Ausgleieh ein leiehteres Beispiel unte~ 11/4. a) Solo-Gesangsstimme 2.) Yom Blatt Das Ergebnis weist naeh, wieweit der Bewerber sieh naeh Tonarten und Interval len orientieren kann. angegeben. Bewerber aus den Abteilungen SM. KMA und ML mit zuslltz1. IIF Musiktheorie und Geh6rbildung benennen die festgelegte Intervallfolge in Gruppen zu vier T6nen, also drei Intervalle aus dem Gedlehtnis. Der Anfangston jeder der vier Gruppen wird Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za einstimmig: das Thema ganz, dann zweimal den Vorder, Vordersatz nachspielen. Er hBrt dann spielt diesen nacho 1m zweiten DurchGanze und spielt es ohne Unterbrechung im vierstimmigen harmonisch: Satz. HF Musik- PrUfungsmodus: siehe 3.~ 6 Nachspielen einstimmig Ein leichteres Literaturbeispiel fUr KMB und MLHauptfach Klavier/Orgel/Cembalo. Ein Obungsbeispiel in moll mit 7, DV, (D). S~ und/oder Ihnl •• D fUr OR. KA und ML, Hauptfach Melodieinstrument oder Gesang. Ein Literaturbeispiel fUr SM, KMA, ML mit zusHtzl. theorie und GehBrbildung (ZHMG). Eine Periode 4.) Nachspielen, Das Ergebnis weist eine Gedlchtnisleistung nacho Diese ist nur mBglich, wenn der Bewerber die Struktur de.r. Melodie erkennen und fUr sich benennenkann. Wir bewerten Fehler im ersten Durchgang wesentlich geringer als im zweiten. In der Tabelle auf S. 8 ist zu sehen, wieviel von Note 1 nach jedem Halbsatz aufgrund von Fehlern .. abgezogen wi rd. Wir geben also insgesamt vier Einzelwertungen, in jedem Durchgang zwei. Der Bewerber hBrt zuerst satz ••Danach soil er den zweimal den Nachsatz und gang hBrt er nochmal das nacho Melodie eines Themas. Sie soil in Vordersatz und Nachsatz gegliedert sein und kann Chromatik, eine Ausweichung oder eine Modulation enthalten. 3.) Nachspielen Foigen benennen: ausgesuchte einzeln von definiert werden: 12 Harmonien. zusammen mit der Tonart, weist nach, wieweit der Bewerber identifizieren kann. harmonische Klang- Endnote der mUndlichen PrUfung (wird weder auf- noch abgerundet) Dieses Ergebnis 2 7 wird auf ganze Noten auf- oder abgerundet. Schriftlich + --~~--------~~~~ MUndlich = Endnote in GehBrbildung 5 1. + 2. + 3. + 4. + 5. Verrechnung: FUr die mUndliche PrUfung sind pro Bewerber 25 Minuten vorgesehen. Der PrUfer muB die Oberlegungspausen entsprechend begrenzen. Das Ergebnfs vorstellungen Sinn der PrUfung: 3) Die Umkehrung des Akkordes und die noch fehlende AuBenstimme. Nach einem Fehler im 2. oder 3. Schritt gibt der PrUfer sofort die ganze LBsung an und geht zum nHchsten Akkord weiter. 2) Die Art des Klangs 1) Melodieton oder BaBton, aus der linearen Fortschreitung hergeleitet. Die Bestltigung oder sofortige Korrektur seiner Antwort benUtzt der Bewerber fUr die weiteren Schritte: Jeder Akkord wird zweimal gegeben. Der Klang kann in drei Denk-Schritten Aus Literatur 5.) Akkorde Das Ergebnis weist eine GedHchtnisleistung nacho Diese ist nur mBglich. wenn der Bewerber die melodischen und harmonischen Strukturen des Beispiels erkennen und benennen kann. Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 1 Note: ! I 1 0 2 2 3 4 5 6 II/I 2,66 Schwere Fehler und Versagen 1/2 1/2 u. Fehler' Stottern 1/4 1/4 I Fehler Stottern 5 7 3 6 8 1/2 1/2 1/4 1/4 1/2 1/2 I , 1 1/2 1 I 10 10 1 8 1 1/2 1 1/2 1/2 4 14 11 15 4,2 12 I 16 4,4 13 3,84 4 4,1614,33 2 13 3,6 3,8 9 (ABSCHLUSS) 3,16 3,3~ 3,5 3,67 9 3',2 3,4 7 2. DurChlZ8n1! Vorders, Nachsatz ,25 1,5 1,75 2 ~,25 2,5 2,75 3 1 4 12,33 I 2-stiDlDlig 1/2 24 Einzelt6ne 2 3 3. MOndlich. Thema .... - Ka4en~ 1- Di.arch~anil 11/3, 11/4 Vorders. Nachsatz Note: Fehler: 1 8 FOR GEHORPROFUNGEN 1-stimmig,4-stimmig 1/1, 1/3 Akkorde. Blattsingenll/5,11/2 1,33 1,66 2. Schriftlich: MOndlich: 0 Fehler: 1. Schriftlich: MOndlich: BEWERTUNGSTABELLEN 116 4,5 17 19 j4,67 4,84 I 18 4,6 4,8 15 14 15 5 20 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 4. Example of the oral part of the final Aural examination for school music teachers (8M) 4.1 Notate the played notes according to the given scale. 4.2. Name the interval groups using note names. 4.3 Repeat a heard melody on the piano: Excerpt from Der Scholar by Hugo Wolf. 4.4 Repeat a: heard "cadence" on the piano: Excerpt from the Second Symphony, II Op. 36 by Ludwig van Beethoven. n . l! JJ. J :i!: I, -, I I -1l 1- -I --, ~ r. r> I r - ~ . l 394 I J If Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 4.5 Sight Singing: Excerpt from a composition by Ernst Pepping (Exact details unkown.) ';::::::::=::::;.....--: ,~,,I'R J g, . rB1 $@ J=¥ ~ .' ~ 1 4.6 ttJ -B-_. ------- ~t=:::=---,--::::::::::::_-~_ t -E .,.......--.....c, ~Ie- P=&==::- t==:p~ - j~. ~ -======_ m ~ ====_. ====~~ Free harmonic phrase: each chord has to be named, e.g. c minor root position. Chords are taken from Zwiilj geistliche Lieder by Max Reger Cp. 137 Dr. 2. 395 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 5. Example of the written part of the fmal Aural examination for school music teachers (8M) 5.1 One-part dictation: Excerpt from SchulwerkfiJr Instrumental-Zusammenspiel ~ C Op. 44 nr. 2 by Paul Hindemith A. _ (~:::::=:=::::::::. ~=======:::>------oj ~=======Q ~. ~ fJ>-----"f"----- __===============::~ fl 5.2 Two-part dictation: Menuett by Anton Franz Maichelbeck 396 I 1::::::::=.. ffF '====6 I,.. H Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 5.3 Foul'-part dictation: Choral BWV 153/9 Ach Gott, wie manches Herzeleid by Johann Sebastian Bach. 1 I II II ... II .•... I I I I , . I) ~ I I Ii II .!.L LI • I - .&. s::L' I I I -!.! b!. I I I -I I , J .0:- I ..L I I II 'I I I I -L I II . .... . I I IJ II I '\I II ~ I -1:. ~ ...•. rio ,- I I II I •• I I I II .. ..- 'I II I I I 5.4 I I I I I I .' I' - II II ..L. I ' I I ~ . ,~ I Error detection: Jesu meiner Seelen Wonne (Nr. 350) from the 371 Choral hymns by Johann Sebastian Bach. 397 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 6. Example of the oral part of the final Aural examination for imtrumental musicians (OR) and-church musicians lcantors B (KM B)4 6.1 Notate the played notes according to the given scale. (No example is given because it is the same as for S~ 6.2 The following played intervals should be named using note names. (The name of the first note is given. Each note is played only once and sustained for a while.) ~:::=:==o---o 6.3 teachers (ML), orchestra I~=====_b!! I~~_bo ~~_? I====:~~ ".. ~_; Repeat a heard melody on the piano: Excerpt from Die Kriihe (Winterreise Op. 89) by Franz Schubert. ---of ~==_==:----'~_. 1 II 6.4 Repeat a heard "cadence" on the piano: Excerpt from the Wanderer-Fantasie Op. 15 by Franz Schubert. 6.5 Sight Singing: Excerpt from a Baroque aria with chromatic changes. (Exact details unknown.) • • , • • 4 Passing the KM B examination in church music is required before starting the KM A course which is more difficult. 398 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 6.6 Free harmonic phrase: each chord has to be name4 e.g. c minor root position. Chords are taken from Zwolj geistliche Lieder by Max Reger Cp. 137 nr. 1. I y+ ....- • I '- y ~..•... J.. I : I I I i I I I 91 II • I ... V • I I V • I I I ..•.. , ..•.. I I. I 7. Example of the written part of the final Aural examination for instrumental teachers (ML), orchestra musicians (OR) and church musicians lcantors B (KM B) . 7.1 One-part dictation: Excerpt from the Serenadejar 7.2 Two-part dictation: Menuet (shortened) by Johann Casper Ferdinand Fischer • t H ~ FlOte, Oboe und Fagott by Wolfgang Fortner • I .1 399 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za 7.3 Four-part dictation: Choral Lobt Gott ihr Christen from the Neues Choralbuch Nr. 167. ~ r=1' 400 I Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA A. The University of Rochester, Eastman School of Music Example of the Sight Singing entrance examination for prospective music studentsS Students have to sing so-called first, second or third year .placement" melodies in order for the examiners to determine their achievement level. AURAL SKILLS DIAGNOSTIC To be completed by all students: Name: Major: Instrument: Status :__ __ _ Perfect Pitch? Yes ----------- Maybe _ Entering freshman ___ No Completing TH 151-152 at ESM Entering transfer To be completed by entering students only: Years of sight singing training (if any): Years of keyboard study (if any): 1. Sight Singing Bate fro- 1 to 5, ll'itll 5 tile bigbut sc:are-circle rat1Dg: [Im!: III __ "IIot attElllPted"--tIIlU.1de too difficult ba-.I ON ONE MELODY AT THAT LEVEL. AND A 4 OR ON A SECOND :> MELODY AT THAT LEVEL. 402 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Sight Singing Placement First year Second year l¥ti ~~~.I , D:elr~Z~-1 403 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Third year 404 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za B: Results from the Institute for Music Theory Pedagogy Studies II6 At the Second Institute for Music Theory Pedagogy Studies conference held in 1989 in Boulder, Colorado, participants took part in a questionnaire-based surveyon selected aspects of Aural Training and Music Theory. The following three questions were included on final examination requirements: Question three: At the end of the theory sequence in sightsinging, students are expected to: (a) (b) (c) (d) sing sing sing sing at sight a melody which modulates to a common related key (62 %) at sight a melody which contains much chromaticism (53 %) at sight a melody which has no tonal center (18%) melodies in four clefs (24%) Question four: At the end the theory sequence in ear training, students are expected to: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) write a two phrase melody containing chromaticism (50%) identify phrase relationships (53 %) write two or more parts of a four-part chorale-style phrase which includes only diatonic hannony (33%) write two of more parts of a four-part chorale-style phrase which includes some chromatic hannony or modulation (73 % ) write a transcription from a recording (8%) Question five: Do you have a written policy at your school as to exit requirements in theory? (a) (b) 6 Yes (24%) No (76%) Roger E. Foltz and Alice M. Lanning, "Report on the Institute for Music Theory Pedagogy Studies II" in Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 3/2 (Fall 1989) p. 246. 405 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za APPENDIXK 1. Etude Nr. VI from Estudios SencilJos by Leo Brouwer Muskal subject: Students taking Aural Training as a.second major subject had to give trial lessons to junior students. The concept of the lesson was described as follows by the lecturing student: 3. 2. Determine the form. Name the criteria that determine the form. Recognize the direction of movement of the melodic progression. Simple characterizations of the intervals, e.g. "open" sound at the beginning (perfect fourth), "in-itself-resting" end sound (major ninth). Recognition of musical-rhetorical figures: Lamento bass, pedal point (palillogia) as reaction against the Redicta prohibition. Determination of the non-harmonic tones and their modes. Recognition of the ambivalence of these tones, e.g. their tonal harmonic and melodic characteristics. 3.7. 3.6 3.5 3.4 3.2 3.3 3.1 The same voices are located at the same metric places in the broken chord. Determine the progression in the individual voices. Be ware of similarities, e.g. the sounding of the Lamento figure in various voices. Determine the non-harmonic foreign tones that fit into the major/minor key systems. Consider in which Ule church modes these tones can possibly occur. Determi'1e which modes are included in which measure. Do the tones sounding have a Tonic/Subdominant/Dominant effect'! Playa major triad on the piano with one or more extra tones added (all tones should be played together). Try to hear Ule extra tone(s) mentally, e.g. Iydian fourth, phrygian second. Sing this tone(s) (without humming it first) and check the result by sustaining this tone and by releasing Ule oUler tones of the triad. Repeat this exercise with a minor triad. Play only the triad and sing an additional non-harmonic tone. Check the result by playing this sung tone. Repeat Ulis exercise with a minor triad. The most important requirement is a well-tuned piano! Indications as to what to listen for (Aural Analysis), as well as assignments given 2.6 2.7 2.5 2.4 2.1 2.2 2.3 Objectives, arranged progressively AURAL TRAINING "TRIAL" LESSON AT THE HOCHSCHULE DER KUNSTE BERLIN Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za